Table of Contents

1. Introduction
2. Management of New Arrivals - Prevent the Introduction of Disease
3. Management of Farm Traffic - Prevent the Spread of Diseases
4. Management of Groups and Housing - Prevent the Spread of Diseases
5. Sanitation and Disinfection Management - Prevent the Spread of Diseases
6. Control of Foreign Animal Diseases - Border Control
7. Conclusions
8. Sources of Additional Information

Introduction

Livestock owners and industry personnel who support their farms are genuinely concerned with the health, wellbeing, and productivity of Ontario's cattle. They recognize that disease outbreaks are preventable. They adopt health management practices to prevent the introduction and/or spread of diseases in Ontario's herds.

There are very sound economic reasons for disease prevention. Some herd owners spend thousands of dollars each year fighting disease outbreaks. In addition to the costs of health care, valuable livestock and production are also lost. Animal welfare, pride in stockmanship and peace of mind are also major incentives to minimize disease occurrence.

This Factsheet describes management strategies to prevent the introduction of disease to a farm or control the spread of disease amongst animals within a farm. Although the Factsheet refers specifically to cattle, the general strategies are applicable to other farm livestock.

A section on the control of Foreign Animal Diseases appears at the end of this Factsheet.

Management of New Arrivals - Prevent the Introduction of Disease

Contagious diseases are transmitted directly from an infected animal to an uninfected animal. This is the most common method of disease transmission amongst animals. There are four main strategies for managing the potential introduction of disease by the addition of animals to the farm.

1. Maintain a closed herd

The first method is not to purchase cattle. For practical reasons, there are few truly closed herds in Ontario.

Owners would have to strictly adhere to the following requirements:

• use home-grown replacements for maintaining and increasing herd size
• prevent fence-line contacts of their stock with other cattle
• use artificial insemination for breeding and not bring in bulls
• not exhibit at shows and
• restrict visitors.

2. Isolate new arrivals

Quarantine of incoming animals is ideal. In most herds, minimizing contact with the rest of the herd may be the only practical method of isolation. To isolate new arrivals:

• use separate housing, feeding, and calving areas (ideal) or
• use separate housing and feeding areas (acceptable) or
• prevent contact with other cattle (minimum acceptable)
• prevent manure movement from the isolation area to the rest of the herd
• isolate for 21-30 days
• observe and examine for early disease detection
• milk isolated cows last and
• test for diseases prior to addition to the main herd.

3. Know the source of purchases and use laboratory testing

Many owners take precautions when purchasing animals. They also use laboratory-testing programs to maintain minimal disease herds or disease-free herd status. To know the health status of herd additions:

• purchase from herds of known status such as those certified under the Canada Health Accredited Herds program
• purchase pregnant or virgin heifers to minimize the risk of introducing mastitis and
• determine the vaccination and health status of individuals and the herd of origin.

The 21-30 day isolation period is ideal for:

• bacterial culture of milk and
• blood testing for specific diseases.

Additional information on the Canada Health Accredited Herds program is available from the District Veterinarian, Canadian Food Inspection Agency.

4. Use vaccines

Vaccines are commonly used to protect cattle against respiratory disease and abortion. For herd additions, these vaccines may be given during the 21 to 30-day isolation period. Bovine virus diarrhea and infectious bovine rhinotracheitis have been diagnosed in Ontario herds. Vaccination against these two diseases should be the cornerstone of every herd vaccination program. Consult your veterinarian for specific recommendations.

Management of Farm Traffic - Prevent the Spread of Diseases

Bacteria, viruses or other agents of disease are called infectious when they are capable of causing infection in exposed animals. Farm visitors wearing boots or clothing freshly contaminated with infectious agents can spread cattle diseases within a farm and among farms. Birds, rodents, pets, people, equipment and vehicles contaminated with manure (or other bodily excretions) should be considered potential disease carriers.

1. Control birds

Pigeons, sparrows, starlings and swallows are the most common birds found in and outside barns. They may carry infectious agents on their feet and within their digestive system. To control bird populations:

• plug small and large nesting holes and perches in your barn that are suitable for sparrows and starlings
• screen all openings in natural ventilation dairy barns
• seal off openings into silo roofs, and
• screen ledges used as nesting sites by pigeons.

2. Control rats and mice

A rat deposits 25,000 droppings and a mouse deposits 17,000 droppings in one year. Even a small population of these rodents may severely contaminate feed supplies. In addition, rodents carry disease agents on their feet and fur, and they destroy millions of dollars worth of feed, supplies and buildings each year. To control rats and mice:

• construct rodent-proof buildings
• eliminate safe hiding places and nesting sites
• remove food and water supplies and
• destroy existing populations by poisoning, fumigating, or trapping.

OMAFRA's web site has information on controlling rodents in livestock facilities. Please consult with a professional about the use of poisons and other methods of rodent destruction.

3. Control people and pets

People spread contaminated material directly on footwear, hands and clothing. To decrease the spread of contaminants:

• inform herd workers, visitors and truckers of your farm protection methods and insist upon co-operation from these individuals
• discourage visitors from entering the housing and feeding areas
• post "Do Not Enter" signs with a telephone number for contacting you on livestock buildings and farm entrance gates
• discourage visitors from touching cattle and calves
• designate a specific visitor area to minimize contacts
• insist visitors wash their boots before entering and leaving
• supply rubber boots or plastic disposable boots and clean coveralls for visitors
• provide a footbath containing an effective disinfectant
• insist workers wash their hands before milking cows and after working with sick animals
• insist workers wear protective plastic or rubber gloves for calving cows
• control the movement of dogs and cats between farms
• minimize the contact of dogs and cats with animals and feeding areas
• vaccinate farm dogs and cats for rabies and diseases common in your area
• wash farm clothing with detergents and bleach or washing soda.

4. Control vehicles and traffic patterns on the farm

Vehicles spread contaminated material on their tires, fenders and undercarriages. To decrease the spread of contaminants by vehicles:

• provide a separate laneway for use by the milk truck in accordance with the regulations of the Milk Act. This laneway must not be contaminated with manure
• provide "clean" routes for feed delivery vehicles - routes that are not contaminated by manure
• provide cattle with laneways that do not cross lanes used by milk trucks and feed delivery vehicles
• avoid sharing manure handling equipment with neighbours
• wash equipment to be shared with neighbours and insist on clean equipment coming onto your farm.

The most common means of contaminating feed or feeding areas is by on-farm equipment used for handling manure. To decrease this risk:

• avoid using manure handling equipment for handling feeds, and if necessary, wash before using for handling feed
• lay out feed storage and manure handling sites to avoid common traffic routes
• design and build barns where cows do not cross feeding alleys.

5. Control feed and feeding equipment

Contaminated feeds (forages, pasture, grains and concentrates, water and waste milk), feeding equipment and systems should be considered when developing an on-farm biosecurity plan. The section on managing vehicles and farm traffic provides some basic information. The biosecurity of feeding should include plans to:

• purchase from suppliers with quality assurance and monitoring programs
• protect feeds from contamination through proper storage of chemicals, pesticides and medications
• protect feed from manure contamination
• establish storage facilities for feeds for various classes of livestock and systems to avoid errors in feeding practices
• harvest feeds at proper moisture contents and ensile them in suitable storage systems
• monitor water quality and assure clean delivery systems.

6. Clean equipment

Disease can spread from cow to cow and farm to farm indirectly by small and large equipment. To reduce this method of spread:

• keep visiting vehicles out of areas accessible to livestock
• thoroughly wash and disinfect the inside, outside and tires of equipment shared with neighbours
• use a new disposable needle for each animal when administering treatments
• disinfect dehorners, hoof knives and trimmers after using on each animal
• use your own halters and clippers rather than borrowing them
• use separate shovels and forks for feeding and manure handling
• sanitize nursing bottles and buckets after each calf feeding, and
• maintain clean water troughs, water bowls, and feed mangers
• clean and sanitize equipment and materials used for handling deadstock.

Management of Groups and Housing - Prevent the Spread of Diseases

Young animals acquire infectious diseases through exposure with older infected or carrier animals (see Table 1). Housing and management systems, especially for dairy cattle, are constructed to minimize contact between young and older animals. In effect, the young are given time to develop immunity to diseases before joining the adults. The facilities also permit implementation of feeding and management practices to assure maximum growth, health and comfort. Owners implementing these strategies should:

• separate pre-weaned dairy calves from all other age groups
• house each dairy calf in an individual pen or hutch
• place hutches away from dairy barn exhaust fans
• house 4-8-month-old dairy calves in small groups separately from older heifers
• house yearling and breeding age dairy heifers separately
• separate dry dairy cows from milking cows
• segregate cows with mastitis to the end of the milking order
• separate replacement beef heifers from the cows
• move beef cows to a clean pasture, away from the wintering area, for calving
• organize chore routine to feed and milk isolated cattle after the main herd
• provide adequate pen, stall or bedded area per animal
• provide adequate feed bunk length and water trough access per animal.

Table 1. Examples of diseases spread from older to younger cattle

Disease	Transmission
E. coli scours	contact with feces
Salmonellosis	contact with feces
Leptospirosis	contact with urine, uterine discharge, aborted foetus
Johne's	contact with feces
Enzootic Bovine Leucosis	contact with blood from needles, dehorners, tattoo pliers
Bovine Virus Diarrhea	contact with body fluids from sick and carrier animals
Gastrointestinal parasites	contact with eggs in feces
Coccidiosis	contact with oocysts in feces

Sanitation and Disinfection Management - Prevent the Spread of Diseases

Spread of disease is reduced when premises are clean and sanitary. In some cases, provincial legislation assures that minimum standards will be maintained. For example, the Milk Act (1987) regulates sanitation on dairy farms in Ontario. Several common management procedures assure adequate sanitation of farm premises.

1. Disposal of dead animals

Carcasses can be a hazard to people and other animals. They can contaminate soil, air and water and require special handling. To minimize property contamination and risk of spreading disease, owners should:

Producers may choose on-farm disposal methods or have the dead animal picked up by a licensed collector.

On-farm disposal options under the Nutrient Management Act Regulation (O.Reg 106/09) include:

For burial, incineration or composting  the Regulation (O. Reg 106/09) describes minimum separation distances from a number of features which include

Regulation (O. Reg 106/09) also includes specific guidelines for each disposal option and limitations on the volume of deadstock disposed of for each option.

Producers also may transport their own deadstock to:

Deadstock may be picked up by a collector licensed under the FSQA.  Federal Regulations apply to the transportation of dead cattle.  Cattle carcasses or Specified Risk Materials (SRM) removed from a carcass must be dyed with a visible stripe. SRM are tissues that have been shown in infected cattle to contain concentrated levels of the bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) agent.  Collectors will be responsible for applying the dye prior to removal of carcasses.

Producers transporting their deadstock or SRM to a receiver must follow guidelines in Regulation 105/09.  To move dead cattle or SRM off-farm, producers must obtain a free 90-day permit from the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA). The process may involve an on-farm inspection by CFIA staff.

Cattle that die during transportation are considered to be SRM. The transporter requires a permit to bring the carcass back to the premises of origin or to a facility that is permitted by the CFIA to store, process or dispose of SRM.

CFIA has a comprehensive set of documents that outline policy related to the enhanced feed ban. The documents are available at the following website.

2. Manage manure and control flies

Infected animals often shed infectious agents in their feces, urine and other bodily fluids. The agents may contaminate feed, water and housing. To reduce the risk of spreading disease by manure:

• plan and install a manure system to prevent environmental contamination and comply with the Agriculture Code of Practice
• compost or store manure under conditions that destroy most disease-producing bacteria
• remove manure frequently from barns, yards and holding areas to prevent completion of life cycles by parasites and flies
• control the fly population by removing manure, using traps, baits or flypaper, using insecticides, using biological predators (wasps) or combinations of control measures
• store manure so it is inaccessible to cattle, especially young stock
• protect young stock from exposure to manure piles and
• assure clean teats and udders for nursing calves by using clean calving areas and bedding packs with clean straw or shavings.

More specific information can be found on a website maintained by Dr. Tim Lysyk, a Livestock Entomologist at the Lethbridge Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge, Alberta. This guide contains specific chemical control recommendations for arthropods affecting livestock. These recommendations are listed by host. Additionally, the site has fact sheets describing the biology and management of specific pests.

3. Manage maternity, sick and calf pens

Exposure of freshening cattle and calves to infectious agents is reduced by carefully managing maternity and sick pens. For disease control:

• use maternity pens only for freshening cattle
• use sick pens only for sick cattle
• prevent animal-to-animal contact between sick pens and maternity pens
• clean all manure from the pens after use
• disinfect the walls and floors after use
• allow the pens to dry after disinfection
• bed the pens well before the next animal enters and
• move cows and heifers to clean, dry pastures or paddocks for calving.

4. Use disinfectants

Information about disinfectants is available on the product label or from farm supply dealers, veterinarians, the Canadian Animal Health Institute and the product manufacturers.

The Canadian Compendium of Veterinary Pharmaceuticals, Biologicals and Specialties, 2005, contains the monographs of many common disinfectants. The indications for use, special properties, advantages, cautions and directions are described for each product. Your veterinarian should have a copy of this book in his/her veterinary clinic.

Familiarize yourself with the product information contained on the product label or package insert before making a selection. For a particular application, determine if a product:

• has activity against bacteria, fungi or viruses
• is active in organic debris (manure)
• is effective in hard water
• has decreased or enhanced activity in heat
• has residual activity for a period of time after application
• is compatible with soaps
• is caustic or has irritating fumes
• can be used on feeding equipment
• can be disposed of in accordance with provincial regulations and
• is appropriate for the intended use.

Several disinfectants for stables, housing and footbaths for visitors are shown in Table 2. These were obtained from the Compendium of Veterinary Products and they are listed as examples, not endorsement. Other products may be available. Use the product information brochure included with the product to determine if the disinfectant meets the criteria for your application.

Disinfectants fall into 6 major categories: chlorhexidine, formaldehyde/glutaraldehyde, iodine complex, isopropanol, phenolic, or quarternary ammonium disinfectants. Several disinfectants fall into the other category not included in those mentioned above.

Control of Foreign Animal Diseases - Border Control

At the time of this writing, Canada, the United States and Mexico are free of Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD). This unique status is shared with Australia and New Zealand in the Southern Hemisphere. Several other countries in the world are also free of FMD. However, many Asian countries, several in South America, Africa and most recently the United Kingdom, the Netherlands and France are experiencing outbreaks of the disease.

For more than 50 years, Canada has successfully used border and import restrictions to prevent the entry of FMD. Ontario's livestock producers support these actions and supplement them with some common sense on-farm strategies.

1. Border Control

Canada prevents the introduction of FMD (and other foreign animal diseases) by strict border controls. To prevent the introduction of foreign animal diseases from countries with the diseases, the Canadian Food Inspection Agency and Customs Canada continue to:

• ban the importation of ruminant (and some other) animals and their products
• ban the importation of used farm equipment
• use "sniffer" beagles to find food products carried by passengers
• seize and destroy foodstuffs and other illegal imports
• question passengers and inspect their baggage and
• use disinfectants for passengers' shoes.

2. On-Farm Control

Ontario's livestock producers prevent the introduction of FMD (and other foreign animal diseases) by common sense and practical farm-gate strategies. FMD virus is easily killed by common procedures for cleaning or washing clothes - dry cleaning, bleach or washing soda. Experiments carried out 30 years ago showed that people examining the head area of clinically affected pigs harboured the FMD virus in their nasal cavity for less than 2 days. In these trials, infection of FMD was transmitted by snorting and coughing into the noses of steers within 30 minutes after examining the affected pigs. Presumably, the concept of a "stand-down period" after exposure to FMD virus came from these experiments. It is not clear how the "stand-down period" became 5, 7 or 14-days in 3 different countries of the world. Nonetheless, the best available knowledge confirms that persons who have been working with FMD animals must stay away from healthy animals for more than 2 days. Please see the Canadian Food Inspection Agency website for more detailed information.

To prevent the introduction of foreign animal diseases from infected animals on farms in countries with the diseases, Ontario's producers should:

• ask foreign visitors about diseases in their country of origin
• ask foreign visitors about their attendance on farms in their country of origin
• ask about and check the cleanliness of shoes and clothes of visitors
• provide rubber boots and protective clothing
• provide plastic boots and
• restrict visitors from their farm if the visitor has been on a farm with a contagious foreign animal disease within the previous 5 days.

In case of an outbreak of a foreign animal disease in Ontario, federal veterinarians would impose bans on cattle movements to prevent the spread of contagious diseases from animal to animal. There would also be restrictions on the movement of people into and out of a quarantined area.

3. Disinfectants for Boot Wash

• Phenolic disinfectants (Beaucoup and Multi Phenolic Disinfectant) are examples of this class of disinfectant. Follow the label directions for mixing with water.
• Iodophors. Iosan is an example. Generally, prepare the boot wash by mixing 2-4 oz/gal of water (60-120 mL/4.5 L).
• Hypochlorites. Clorox or other brands of bleach that contain 5.25% sodium hypochloride. Mix 2-4 oz/gal (60-120 cc/4.5 L) of water.
• Chlorhexidine. Hibitane Disinfectant (2% w/v). Mix 120 mL per 3.8 L water.
• Sulfates. Virkon is an example. The common dilution rate for Virkon is 1% weight per volume. Mix a 50-gm packet in 5 L water.
• Organic material (dirt and manure) inactivates many disinfectants. Therefore, clean your boots with a brush and water, removing all dirt and manure so that the disinfectant will sanitize the boots. Hypochlorites and iodophors will cause deterioration of rubber boots if left in contact. Prolong boot life by rinsing them with clear water after thoroughly disinfecting.

Table 2. Several common disinfectants for farm use

Active Ingredient	Name	Manufacturer
Chlorhexidine acetate	Hibitane® Disinfectant	Wyeth
Chlorine/sulfates	AVS Virucidal Extra	Bio Agri Mix
	B - 90	Agro B
	Virkon® Disinfectant Cleaner	Vétoquinol
Cleaners/general	Biosolve	Vétoquinol
Enzymes	Asepto-zyme™	Ecolab Healthcare
Formaldehyde/glutaraldehyde	Formaline	Vétoquinol
	Profilm®	Pfizer
Iodine complex	Dairy Dine	Dominion
	Iosan™	WestAgro
	Premise Disinfectant	WestAgro
Phenol	Beaucoup	Ecolab Healthcare
	Multi Phenolic Disinfectant	Bio Agri Mix
Quarternary ammonium	BioSentry™904™	Pfizer
	Coverage 256®	Steris
	Proquat®	Pfizer
	Quatxyl®-D Plus	Pfizer
	Rocco	Vétoquinol
	Lysol	Reckitt Benckiser (Canada) Inc.
Various ingredients	BioSentry™ Acid-A-Foam	Pfizer
	BioSentry™ EZ Kleen™	Pfizer
	BioSentry™ Fog Enhancer™	Pfizer
	Fumalyse II	Bio Agri Mix
	Hyperox	Vétoquinol

****Always Read and Follow Label Instructions***

Conclusions

The work of disease prevention is never finished. Owners have the ultimate responsibility for herd protection. Visitors must respect biosecurity protocols put in place by livestock owners. Savvy livestock owners implement strategies to prevent the introduction of disease to their herds and also to prevent the spread of diseases already present. To protect their herds, owners commonly:

• manage new arrivals
• manage and control farm traffic
• manage groups of animals and their housing
• sanitize and disinfect and
• impose "stand-down periods" for visitors from foreign countries.

Review your strategies for health protection and sanitation management of your herd using the lists printed above. Consult with your veterinarian regarding which strategies to use in your herd health program. Implement the appropriate strategies to insure health and comfort for your cattle. Make sure that all your workers and visitors are aware of their role in safeguarding the health of your herd.

For foreign animal diseases, border controls are our first line of defence. Restriction of visitors from infected farms for a "stand-down period" is our secondary defence.

Sources of Additional Information

1. Rodent Control in Livestock Facilities (Order No. 07-009)
2. Canadian Compendium of Veterinary Pharmaceuticals, Biologicals and Specialties, 9th Edition 2005. CCVPBS, 148 King St., P.O. Box 39, Hensall, ON, N0M 1X0.
3. Canadian Animal Health Institute, 160 Research Lane, Suite 102, Guelph, ON, N1G 5B2.
4. Canadian Food Inspection Agency
5. Canadian Food Inspection Agency - Animal Disease Information: Animal Biosecurity. http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/anima/biosec/biosece.shtml
6. Canadian Food Inspection Agency - Enhanced Feed Ban Decision Documents
7. Sellers RF, Donaldson AI, Herniman KAJ (1970). Inhalation, persistence and dispersal of foot-and-mouth disease virus by man. J. Hygiene. 68:565-73.
8. Sellers RF, Herniman KAJ and Mann JA (1971). Transfer of foot-and-mouth disease virus in the nose of man from infected to non-infected animals. Vet Rec. 89:447-49.
9. Sellers, R. Biosecurity of Dairy Farm Feedstuffs. Bovine Alliance on Management and Nutrition.
10. Recommended Disinfecting Agents, Canadian Food Inspection Agency