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Free Stall Dimensions for Dairy Cows
Table of Contents
ConceptsA knowledge of cow measurements and their space requirements is necessary to design stalls. Stall dimensions must be appropriate for standing, lying, rising and resting without injury, pain or fear. This document describes cow dimensions, space requirements and stall dimensions to consider for modern Canadian dairy cows. Choices - Stall Maintenance/Manure SystemChoice of manure system and commitment to stall maintenance play
an important role in determining our choices in stall design. For
example, a once-per-day stall cleaning protocol may not be compatible
with stall dimensions that focus on the comfort of the cow. British
Columbia research has shown that stall usage is greatest with a 50-inch-wide
stall compared to a 45-inch stall and that stall soiling with manure
also increases with usage. Although more acceptable to cows, the wider
stalls require more daily maintenance. At the outset, one must decide
if the choice in stalls will be based on ease of maintenance, greatest
use by the cows, or a compromise between those two ends of the spectrum.
The choice of stall surface, bedding material and manure handling
system must be compatible. Cow DimensionsDue to variation in cow size between herds, the first step in planning stall size is the measurement of Lactation 1 and mature cows in your herd. To size stalls to fit the majority of your cows, measure the larger representatives in a group. Rump heights and hook bone widths are useful to estimate several other body dimensions. Since several body dimensions are proportional, the ratios provide reasonable estimates of dimensions for other dairy breeds. Figure 1. Variation in cow size within and between herds highlights the need to measure cows before choosing stall size and to build pens of stalls accordingly.
It is becoming common to build pens with stalls sized for Lactation-1 heifers, milking cows and dry or special-needs cows, in recognition of variation in size and needs within a herd. A barn with one group of cows and one stall size poses several challenges to both management and cows. Stall cleanliness, labour, mastitis, lameness and cow comfort are issues to consider in one-group barns. Figure 2. Several cow measurements taken on standing cows are useful for building free stalls. Other essential measurements are imprint length and imprint width of resting cows.
Table 1 shows measurements of mature Canadian Holsteins and some calculated proportions, taken at a local herd. For example, the cows had a rump height of 60 inches, a nose-to-tail length of 8.5 feet and a hook-bone width of 25 inches. Their weight exceeded 1550 pounds.
| Top of Page | Space RequirementsObservations of cows freely lying and rising reveal that a mature Canadian Holstein cow uses 102 x 52 inches of living space and another 20 inches, or more, of open forward space for lunging motions. Several cow dimensions that define this living space include those shown in Figure 2 plus imprint length and width. Figure 3. Imprint length extends from the folded foreknee to the tail when lying in the narrow position. This length defines the bed length of a stall. For mattress barns, bed length is curb-to-brisket locator distance but for most sand stalls, the measurement is from the inside of the curb.
Imprint length defines the bed length needed for resting with all body parts on the stall. Imprint length is greater when the cow extends her front legs forward. Nose-to-tail length describes the measurement from the tail to the nose of a cow standing with her head forward. When lying, the nose-to-tail length varies with the deviation of the head and neck. When resting in the narrow position, the point of the hock on the upper hind leg and the extension of the abdomen on the opposite side defines the imprint width. This width is the minimum stall width for a resting cow. Figure 4. For the rear view of the cow in the photo, imprint width extends from the left hock to the right abdomen - a distance of about 52 inches for this cow. It increases when the rear legs extend outwards or the cow reclines in wide resting positions.
The space needed for lying and rising motions (lunging) extends forward, downward and upward for head lunge and bob, vertically and forward for standing, and laterally for hindquarter movements. Knowledge of this space is essential for properly positioning neck and tie rails, deterrent straps, solid stall fronts, or provision for social space in open-front head-to-head stalls. Figure 5. While rising freely on pasture, a cow uses the forward,
downward and vertical space outlined by the white lines in the photograph.
This cow lunged forward about 22% of her resting nose-to-tail length
while rising. Her nose either touches or almost touches the ground.
Therefore, the space in front of free stalls should not have any obstacles
higher than bed height that interfere with the normal head bob during
lying and rising motions.
| Top of Page | Stall Dimensions as Ratios of Body DimensionsAlthough nose-to-tail length is essential, it is a difficult dimension to gather. Since hook-bone width and rump height are easy to measure and since many body dimensions are proportional, these two cow dimensions are useful references for sizing stalls. Table 2 shows stall dimensions, estimated relationships to body dimensions and example calculations for mature Holsteins in a study herd. Figure 13, at the end of this document, is a drawing showing head-to-head stalls and several example dimensions for mature cows, Lactation-1 heifers and dry cows. The standing surface for the feet is the reference for vertical placement of the neck rail or deterrent strap. The neck rail forward location is a horizontal measurement from the alley curb.
| Top of Page | Neck RailThe neck rail is the restraint (often a pipe) mounted to the top or underside of the top pipe of a loop. It controls the forward location of a cow while standing in the stall. Proper location of the neck rail lets a cow stand straight with all four feet in the stall and rise without contacting the rail. The location is several inches lower and forward of the withers. It is usually directly above or an inch or two to the cow side of the brisket locator. Perching and diagonal behaviours and neck injuries are the most obvious signs of incorrect placement of the neck rail. Figure 6. A neck rail placed 50 inches above the mattress and 70 inches forward of the curb allows this cow to stand straight in the stall with four feet on the bed.
| Top of Page | Wide Loop Opening - Forward or Diagonal LungeWhen rising or lying normally, a mature Holstein uses about 10 feet of space measured from her tail to the most forward lunge distance of her nose. This space requirement verifies that stall length should be 10 feet for stalls facing a wall. It should be about 9 feet for head-to-head stalls when a cow can use space on the opposite side of centre. The forward space must be unobstructed for frontward lunging and bobbing of the head. There must be no obstructions higher than the surface of the bed. Shorter stalls and stalls with obstructions in the lunging space lead to diagonal (corner-to-corner) standing, lying and rising. Cows still lunge forward, relative to their body direction, but diagonal or sidewise to the stall. Since the top pipe of the loop becomes the neck rail when cows lunge through it, the loop must have a wide opening. It also must have a low mount that does not inhibit the ability to lunge over it. The measurement from the top of the mattress to the top of the bottom pipe should be less than 12 inches. Since the top pipe of the loop becomes the effective neck rail, it should be about the height recommended for the neck rail - 48 to 50 inches for mature Holsteins. Figure 7. A wide loop opening and open-front stalls allow cows to lunge both diagonally and frontward. While rising, this cow did not contact the neck rail and she took the stride over the low brisket locator.
| Top of Page | Brisket LocatorA brisket locator restricts the forward location of a cow lying in the stall. It defines the forward limit of the bed length measured from the rear curb. Boards of varying heights, concrete curbs, nylon straps and metal pipes have been the most common items used for brisket locators. Many barns have brisket locators that are too high and interfere with the stride taken during rising. A cow usually swings her foot high enough to clear a 4-inch obstacle. This establishes the maximum height of a brisket locator above a mattress or sand bedding. Figure 8. A cow-friendly brisket locator is 4 inches or less in height, has a smoothed surface and attaches to the stall surface rather than the loops.
A brisket locator should have a rounded and smooth surface to ease movement of legs over it. The brackets used to support brisket locators on the lower pipe of a loop are an obstruction to extension of the legs. Brackets can be avoided by mounting the brisket locator on or below the stall surface. A 5-inch space between the brisket locator and the loop prevents entrapment of a leg. | Top of Page | Area Forward of the Brisket LocatorObjects in the essential space forward of the brisket locator are obstructions to the head lunge and bob, the stride and resting positions for the front legs. This area should be the same height as the stall bed. The use of one support structure for the loop in single
stalls or pairs of loops in head-to-head stalls keeps the area unobstructed
with support pipes. Figure 9. The area forward of the brisket locator
must be free of obstructions to lunging and bobbing of the head. Plan
the stall layout first, then the roof and its supports, so posts are
adjacent to the loops.
| Top of Page | Deterrent Strap - Open Front StallsOpen-front stalls provide cows with a convenient route
for escaping a dominant cow, a cow in heat, equipment used to bed
stalls, or an aversive handler. Figure 10. A deterrent strap must not interfere
with the upward bobbing of the head. A suggested placement is about
40-42 inches for Holsteins in 16-foot stalls and about 36 inches in
18-foot stalls.
| Top of Page | Sand-Bedded StallsThe effective bed length for sand-bedded stalls is the distance from the inside of the curb to the brisket locator. This is especially true with sand maintained below the level of the curb. The rear curb is the fixed reference point for vertical measurements to locate neck rails. Neck-rail height changes with the height of sand stored at the front of the stall. Ideally, the sand bed should be slightly sloped and filled to curb height. Piles of sand stored in stall fronts are obstructions to lying, rising and resting behaviours. Figure 11. The soft resting surface of sand-bedded stalls includes the space between the inside of the concrete curb and the brisket locator. This distance is the resting surface for the cow. The neck rail in most sand stalls is often placed the width of the rear curb closer to the back of the stall than it is for mattress stalls. It forces cows to perch in the stall.
A brisket locator can be mounted in a sand-bedded free stall. At one farm, a 10-inch concrete curb supported the 9-inch footprint of the plastic brisket locator. However, the caregivers failed to keep sand above the concrete curb and several cows suffered injuries to their knees from the installation. Another method is to use a 10-inch wooden plank and rods driven into the sand bed and its base. Figure 12. The loop for this sand-bedded stall slopes downward at the curb side so cows can swing their heads over it more easily when exiting the stall. It has a narrow opening and it is mounted higher above the bed than loops for mattress barns (see Figure 9). The loop controls cow position and generally forces forward lunging. The bottom pipe is high enough to discourage cows from lunging through it, yet low enough to discourage cows from lunging under it.
| Top of Page | Bedding and Stocking DensityChoice of manure system, commitment to stall maintenance
and the ready availability of inexpensive bedding determine our choices
in stall design. For example, a once-per-day stall cleaning protocol
may not be compatible with stall dimensions that focus on the comfort
of the cow. British Columbia research has shown that stall usage is
greatest with a 50-inch-wide stall compared to a 42-inch stall. However,
stall soiling with manure increased about two-fold with the wider
stalls. In another study they found that stalls with little use stayed
clean and stalls with the greatest occupancy were dirtiest. Although
more acceptable to cows, the wider stalls require more daily maintenance,
just as more usage of a tractor requires more frequent oil changes.
Dirtiness should not be the sole measure of stall design.
The question of over-populating dairy barns is common because some believe it is economical to house more cows than there are available stalls. Nonetheless, the effects of greater than 100% stocking density are now being researched. Some producers have discovered for themselves that overstocking has definite challenges for their cows, ventilation systems, manure handling and their management.
Researchers (Cook and others) at the University of Wisconsin have shown a positive relationship between standing or perching and lameness in dairy cows. They found the behaviour of lame cows differs in mattress-bedded barns and sand-bedded barns. Whereas lame cows in sand barns showed normal patterns of lying and standing, lame cows in mattress-bedded barns spent more time standing and less lying. They believe that traction may be an important factor and suggest that lame cows on mattresses experience more pain and fear. They also believe that the traction afforded by loose bedding is a great advantage to lame cows. Further, they suggest that loose bedding distributes weight bearing to the entire claw and is less painful than that experienced in mattress barns with scant loose bedding. Producers should use lots of bedding on stalls with rubber-filled mattresses or rubber mats and keep the sand level with the curb in sand-bedded stalls. The barn should not be over-populated. The challenge is to provide an optimal stall surface - one that provides thermal insulation, softness, traction, low risk of abrasion and easy to maintain and clean. Cautions and PrecautionsA comfortable and safe stall requires attention to detail in construction and maintenance. The two following accident cases serve to illustrate that a stall is a unit and all features must be maintained to assure cow safety. At one farm, three cows injured their spines while attempting to exit forward. Two features contributed to the accidents. First, the sand bedding was several inches below curb height and this effectively raised the neck rail relative to the cow's feet. Second, the stalls had a concrete slab that acted as a brisket locator and filled the space between the head-to-head stalls. After filling the stalls level with sand from rear curb to the forward concrete slab and installing a deterrent strap, there were no further accidents. At another farm, piles of bedding stored forward of the brisket locator and a neck rail positioned 64 inches from the rear of the stall provided the cow trap. When rising, a cow wedged her chime under the neck rail, moved forward and became trapped at the hips. The pile of bedding stored forward of the brisket locator made her predicament worse because it effectively lowered the neck-rail height. After removing the stored bedding, moving the neck rail forward and upward and installing a deterrent strap, there were no further accidents. | Top of Page | Post and Rail Feed BarriersNeck injuries occur when the skin, the nuchal ligament and its bursae and the spinous processes of the first few thoracic vertebrae at the withers experience repetitive trauma. The injuries may be gall, callus, hygroma or bursitis.Figure 16. The region of the supraspinous bursa of the neck can experience repetitive trauma from a neck rail or strap when a cow stands in a stall, during the motions to lie during the motions to rise.
Another source of trauma is the restraint used at a feed bunk. Wire cable is one type of restraint. Pipe attached either directly to a post, or on a mount to locate it forward of the post and over the manger, may be the most common restraint. A novel restraint uses pipes mounted on a pivot. With this device, the larger cows in the group raise the restraint and carry the burden while feeding at the bunk. Figure 17. The arrow points to an injury on the neck related to a feed-bunk restraint mounted 45 inches above the cow's feet.
The height for placement of a feed-barrier rail is measured vertically from the cow's feet on the alley side of the bunk. It should be about 85% of the rump height of mature Holsteins - a location similar to neck-rail height in free stalls. The feed rail is often adjustable and could be raised or lowered to suit cow size in various pens. A mount offsets the rail about 6, 8 or 10 inches over the feed bunk. The drive-through feed alley must be 18 - 20 feet wide to permit passage of feed wagons without damage to the rail. Figure 18. A post and rail feed-bunk restraint mounted 51 inches above the cows' feet and about 8 inches forward of the centre of the manger curb. Neck injuries are rare on cows in this barn. The height of the feed rail and the frequency of pushing feed up contribute to freedom from neck injuries.
In tie-stall barns, producers have relocated the tie rail to 46 to 50 inches higher than the cows' feet and 10 inches forward of the manger curb. They lengthen the tie chain to just touch the top of the manger curb. With the higher tie rails, the rail can be placed closer than 10 inches from the manger curb. Feed BunksSweep-in mangers are widely use because of simplicity of construction and ease of cleaning compared to feed bunks with barrier fronts. Moreover, nutritionists and veterinarians egg on the choice to assure frequent removal of stale feed and thereby improve feed intakes. Figure 19. The feed in this sweep-in manger is outside the reach of the cows. Although push up and cleaning are easy tasks, the feeding system requires labour to keep the feed close to the cows. The feed rail is low enough to prevent escapes. However, with constant reaching for feed because of infrequent feed push up, these cows are at greater risk of neck injuries.
True to their name, sweep-in mangers require feed to be pushed within reach of the cows. The frequency of push-up varies from 3 to 12 times per day. The intensity of the labour varies with the technology - brooms, snow shovels, ATVs or garden tractors with blades or brushes, skid steers or tractors. Although quicker and easier, the job still consumes time. To reduce labour even more, some producers installed automated feed pushers (an adaptation of an alley scraper) in their barns. Figure 20. This 25-year old drive-through barn has a feed bunk that retains feed within easy reach of the cows. The owner does not push up feed, claims very little feed refusal and only minimal need for cleaning.
In tie stall barns, sweep-in mangers may contribute to dirty stalls and cows and subsequent lameness or mastitis. It's obvious that cows step forward to reach feed and often that's when they defecate in their stalls. What also is obvious in tie-stall barns is the beneficial effect of keeping feed closer to the cows. It is unknown if there are less episodes of manure in stalls or fewer cows with neck injuries in barns with a barrier at the front of the manger. Keep feed within easy reach of cows. This is an essential tenet of stockmanship. It benefits the cow - freedom from hunger, injury and disease - and the caretaker. Feed barriers could have a place on modern dairy farms. They just need 21st Century automation so they lift up or drop down out of the way for cleaning mangers. Figure 21. A post and rail feed barrier must
be constructed for the dimensions of the cows eating at the bunk.
For most Holsteins, the manger wall should be about 20 inches higher
than the walk alley (cow's feet) to avoid injury to briskets. This
height also permits the addition of self-locks later. Newer designs
permit vertical and horizontal adjustment of the rail. The feed manger
platform must be 4 to 6 inches higher than the walk alley (cow's feet).
In general, the feed rail height should be about 0.85 x rump height and the manger wall should be less than the distance from the floor to the brisket for the largest cows in the group. Figure 22. The diagram shows a typical installation for a self-locking front at a feed bunk. Note that the concrete manger front is lower than the one for the post and rail feed manger. (Figure courtesy of H. House, OMAF)
Figure 23. The diagram shows open-front free stalls with rubber-filled mattresses. The table shows variations in stall dimensions to meet the needs of Holsteins - first-lactation heifers, mature milking cows and dry cows. The slope on the stall is 0.25 inches per foot. For ease of side-lunging, the top of the lower pipe of the loop should be no higher than 12 inches above the bed height (mattress). (Figure courtesy of H. House, OMAFRA)
Note: D = 40" for 8' Stall
Figure 24. The figure shows dimensions for a sand-bedded free-stall
design using a wide-loop divider. It shows dimensions suggested for
first lactation cows, mature cows and mature pre-fresh cows. The forward
location of the neck rail is the bed length minus the width of the
concrete curb. Since cows will not stand on the slope of the curb,
they stand diagonal ahead of the curb if stall length allows. The
rearward location of the neck rail discourages cows from standing
with all four feet in the bed and excessive soiling of the stall.
In effect, the rearward location forces cows to perch in the stalls.
However, with lower sand levels, the degree of elevation of front
feet may be minimal. The height of the neck rail will vary with sand
fill and should be at least 44 inches above the sand.
Figure 25. The diagram shows head-to-head, open-front
free stalls with sand bedding. The table shows variations in stall
dimensions to meet the needs of first-lactation heifers, mature milking
cows and dry cows. The figure also shows an alternate style of loop.
Sand Bedding LevelsTarget = 2" to 3" above level Note: Deterrent: 43" above level for 16' stall platform; 37" above level for 18' stall platform Related LinksFor more information:Toll Free: 1-877-424-1300 Local: (519) 826-4047 E-mail: ag.info.omafra@ontario.ca |
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