Dried distillers grains
Energy
Feeds providing mainly energy, such as corn and hominy, are called
energy suppliers. Waste products of the confectionery and baking industries
(bakery, chocolate, or candy wastes) are also high in energy. Some
are also high in fat and are more suitably called multiple nutrient
sources.
Protein
Meals remaining from the processing of oilseed are predominantly
protein suppliers. Some feed ingredients lower in protein than the
oil meals (30%-50% crude protein) and equal or lower in energy value
than corn (80% total digestible nutrient) are classified as medium-protein
feeds.
Fibre
Commodity feeds may have benefits in ruminant nutrition due to their
fibre content. These feeds are fibre suppliers and include products
such as soybean hulls, oat hulls and beet pulp. An important consideration
for fibrous by-products is heat damage resulting in poorer nutritional
value. Elevated levels of acid detergent fibre-bound nitrogen (ADF-N),
can discern this.
Fat
Fat sources are fed to increase the energy density of the ration,
as in the case of high-producing, early-lactation dairy cows and rapidly
growing starter beef cattle. There are well-established limits to
the amount and type of fat that can be effectively incorporated into
animal rations. Overfeeding fat causes digestive disturbances in ruminants,
reducing feed intake and efficiency.
Bypass Protein
Other feed ingredients have special features with respect to protein
degradability for use by ruminants. These are classified as bypass
or undegradable protein sources, of plant or animal origin, and have
a crude protein content greater than 20%, with at least 50% of this
protein escaping breakdown in the rumen. Most often, these ingredients
have been specially heat treated or dried. They are most suitable
for the diet of high-producing, early-lactation dairy cows or rapidly
growing starter beef cattle. Bypass protein sources are often highly
priced per unit of crude protein. The protein composition (amino acid
profile) and levels of degradable, undegradable and soluble protein
fractions are particularly important.
Feed Ingredient Evaluation
When considering feeds from a specific class, you can make economic
decisions on a cost per kilogram of nutrient. For example, to chose
between 48% and 44% soybean meal calculate the cost per unit of crude
protein (CP) from each source and choose the one providing protein
at the least cost. For example, 48% soybean meal (SBM) costs $380/tonne.
The cost per unit of protein is ($380/480) or $0.79/kg. Similarly,
if the cost of 44% SBM is $360/tonne, then the cost of protein is
(360/440) or $0.82/kg. The same situation holds among the energy feeds
based on their Total Digestible Nutrient (TDN) or Net Energy (NE)
values.Petersen's equations were developed to compare the value of
various feedstuffs with corn and soybean meal, as the sources of protein
and energy. The use of these equations provides a fast and easy cost
comparison for alternative feeds. In Table 3, By-product Evaluation
Using Petersen's Equations, Petersen's equations were used to
calculate the value of alternative feeds based on their protein and
energy contents in comparison to the nutritive value and cost of corn
and soybean meal (SBM). Factors used in Petersen's equations can be
calculated as follows (input "as fed" values):
A = [(TDN corn x CP of test feed) - (CP of corn x
TDN of test feed)] ÷ [(TDN corn x CP of SBM) - (CP of corn
x TDN of SBM)]
B = [(CP of test feed) - (CP of SBM x A)] ÷ CP of corn
Petersen's equations are used to calculate the comparative value
of a feed as follows:
$ value per tonne of test feed = (A x $ price per T SBM) +
(B x $ price per T of corn)
Corn (energy feed) and 48% soybean meal (protein
feed) are commonly used as the base feeds in Petersen's equations.
However, any other energy or protein feed can be substituted. The
value of a test feed is based on its level of TDN and CP in comparison
to the costs and nutritive value of the base feeds, in this case,
corn and soybean meal.
To use the ratio equations to determine the value of an alternative
feed:
- multiply the price of soybean meal by the soy ratio (A)
- multiply the price of corn by the corn ratio (B)
- add or subtract these two results as indicated
- the result is the maximum value of the test feed as a source of
energy and protein.
For example, if the price of corn is $120/tonne and the price of
soybean meal (48%) is $320/tonne, then the nutrient value of bakery
waste is (0.0507 x $320) + (0.9852 x $120) = $134.23. Bakery waste
available at a price of less than $134/tonne is a good value when
corn costs $120/tonne and soybean meal $320/tonne. A change in the
price of either corn or soybean meal will affect the economic value
of bakery waste. When feed prices are volatile, update Petersen's
equations regularly to determine if an alternative feed source is
a better buy. Table 1, Feed Value Comparison based upon Variable
Corn and Soybean Meal Prices, shows changes in alternative feed
values as the price of corn and soybean meal varies.
Table 1. Feed Value Comparison based
upon Variable Corn and Soybean Meal Prices
|
|
Price per Tonne
|
|
Corn Grain
|
$120
|
$150
|
$180
|
|
Soybean Meal - 48%
|
$300
|
$320
|
$340
|
$300
|
$320
|
$340
|
$300
|
$320
|
$340
|
|
|
Value per Tonne
|
|
Bakery Waste
|
$133
|
$134
|
$135
|
$163
|
$164
|
$165
|
$193
|
$194
|
$195
|
|
Beet Pulp
|
$111
|
$111
|
$111
|
$139
|
$139
|
$139
|
$168
|
$168
|
$167
|
|
Brewers Grain - Wet
|
$45
|
$47
|
$49
|
$48
|
$50
|
$52
|
$51
|
$53
|
$56
|
|
Brewers Grain - Dried
|
$172
|
$180
|
$188
|
$184
|
$193
|
$201
|
$197
|
$205
|
$213
|
|
Corn Distillers - Wet
|
$68
|
$71
|
$74
|
$73
|
$76
|
$79
|
$79
|
$82
|
$85
|
|
Corn Distillers - Dried
|
$208
|
$217
|
$226
|
$224
|
$234
|
$243
|
$241
|
$250
|
$260
|
|
Corn Gluten Feed
|
$86
|
$90
|
$93
|
$93
|
$97
|
$101
|
$101
|
$105
|
$108
|
|
Corn Gluten Meal - 60%
|
$364
|
$390
|
$417
|
$356
|
$382
|
$408
|
$348
|
$374
|
$400
|
|
Corn Hominy
|
$141
|
$141
|
$142
|
$172
|
$173
|
$174
|
$204
|
$205
|
$206
|
|
Carrots
|
$16
|
$16
|
$17
|
$20
|
$20
|
$20
|
$24
|
$24
|
$24
|
While the ratio equations in Table 3 use TDN and CP to compare feeds,
these equations can also be used to compare feeds using other nutrients,
e.g., Metabolizable Energy (ME), Digestible Energy (DE) or Net Energy
(NE) as the energy units. Other protein values may also be used, such
as, bypass protein or % lysine. To substitute other nutrients, simply
replace the energy and/or protein values for each of the TDN or CP
values of corn, soybean meal and the test feed. Provided that the
same energy or protein units are used for each of the 3 feeds, the
equations to determine the A and B factors for use in Petersen's equation
will be appropriate.
Petersen's equations do not accurately evaluate feeds that are mainly
suppliers of fibre, by-pass protein or fat. Feeds that contain high
amounts of fat have a greater economic value in diets of high-producing
cows or rapidly growing starter cattle, where very high energy densities
are critical. These types of feeds, such as bakery waste or tallow,
must be given special consideration. Feeds that supply multiple nutrients,
such as whole cottonseed or roasted soybeans, will actually be worth
$25-$60/tonne more than the value expressed in a simple protein/energy
value.
Evaluating Bypass Protein or Bypass
Protein Evaluation
Feeds providing significant bypass protein must also be given special
consideration, as the cost of this form of protein is 25%-30% higher
than crude protein. Since bypass protein is more expensive than crude
protein and may be the only limiting nutrient in a specific diet,
a comparison of alternative bypass protein sources may be desired.
These feeds may be compared based on cost per unit of bypass protein.
The comparative values of bypass protein in various feeds listed in
Table 2, Bypass Protein Evaluation, are obtained using the
following formula:
$/kg bypass protein = $/unit feed ÷ kg/unit of feed x % CP
x % UIP
% CP = crude protein of feed on an as-fed basis
% UIP = undegradable intake protein content of feed as % of CP
For example, the cost per kg of bypass protein when 48% soybean meal
containing 35% UIP costs $370/tonne is:
$370/tonne ÷ (1000 kg/tonne) x 0.48 x 0.35 = $2.20/kg bypass
protein
This method can also be used when comparing the values of other feeds
that supply only one nutrient, such as tallow and oils.
Table 2. Bypass Protein Evaluation
|
Feed
|
Price/T
$
|
CP
% as fed
|
UIP
% of CP
|
Cost/kg
UIP
|
|
Soybean Meal
|
372
|
48.0
|
35
|
$2.21
|
|
Dried Corn Distillers
|
234
|
27.1
|
62
|
$1.39
|
|
Corn Gluten Meal
|
550
|
61.2
|
55
|
$1.63
|
|
Fish Meal
|
850
|
60.3
|
72
|
$1.96
|
|
Blood Meal
|
900
|
79.1
|
82
|
$1.39
|
Note that with the values used in Table 2, blood
meal and dry corn distillers are the cheapest sources of bypass protein.
Least Cost Formulation
Petersen's equations and single nutrient evaluations
are simple and easy to use. However, the small number of nutrients
that they consider in evaluating a feedstuff limits them. More advanced
methods have developed for determining the dollar value of by-product
feeds. For many years, the feed industry and large livestock producers
have used least-cost computer formulation methods to formulate diets
and minimize feed costs. These programs use matrix algebra or linear
programming to match the feeds available to the nutrient requirements
of the animal. Many nutrients can be evaluated simultaneously.
Linear programming can also determine maximum dollar
values and replacement values for any feed not used in a particular
ration formulation. This allows a user to estimate when an ingredient
might be an economical alternative particularly when feed prices are
changing rapidly. Linear programs provide the most accurate estimate
of an ingredient's worth. Linear programs can also adjust for predetermined
dietary inclusion limits for ingredients based upon palatability or
nutritional considerations.
Least-cost programs are available from many software
suppliers at a nominal fee. Contact OMAFRA's Agricultural Information
Contact Centre for agricultural software listing for least-cost and
other ration programs available in Canada and the United States.
Other Considerations
Cost of alternative feeds should not be the only
consideration when thinking about replacing nutrients in a diet. Other
considerations include trucking costs, special storage, handling and
processing facilities and increased labour requirements for handling
and processing. Spoilage must be considered, as some of these products
are high in moisture and have a short storage life. Contaminants,
such as plastic, can be a problem and additional costs are incurred
to the producer for sorting and disposal of the contaminants. Quality
of the ingredient including nutritional composition and palatability
must also be considered, as the feeds listed in the tables can only
substitute for a portion of the more traditional ration ingredients.
Relevant OMAFRA Factsheets
Comparative Feed Values for Swine, Order No. 03-003
Livestock Feed Terms Defined, Order No. 92-017
Nutrient Testing, Order No. 03-007
Table 3. By-product Evaluation Using Petersen's Equations
|
Feed
|
% DM
|
% TDN
|
% CP
|
% TDN
|
% CP
|
A-SOY
Ratio
|
B-CORN
Ratio
|
Feed
Value
|
|
DM basis
|
As-fed basis
|
|
Corn Grain
|
85.0
|
89.0
|
9.6
|
75.7
|
8.2
|
0.0000
|
1.0000
|
$140.00
|
|
Soybean Meal 48%
|
89.0
|
84.0
|
53.9
|
74.8
|
48.0
|
1.0000
|
0.0000
|
$320.00
|
|
Milling and Processing Products
|
|
Apple Pomace
|
20.0
|
70.0
|
5.0
|
14.0
|
1.0
|
- 0.0128
|
0.1977
|
$23.59
|
|
Bakery Waste
|
88.0
|
89.0
|
11.9
|
78.3
|
10.5
|
0.0507
|
0.9852
|
$154.15
|
|
Beet Pulp
|
91.0
|
78.0
|
8.0
|
71.0
|
7.3
|
- 0.0094
|
0.9476
|
$129.64
|
|
Wet Brewers Grain
|
24.0
|
67.0
|
25.0
|
16.1
|
6.0
|
0.1069
|
0.1069
|
$49.17
|
|
Dry Brewers Grain
|
92.0
|
67.0
|
25.0
|
61.6
|
23.0
|
0.4097
|
0.4099
|
$188.50
|
|
Corn Cobs
|
90.0
|
47.0
|
2.8
|
42.3
|
2.5
|
- 0.0512
|
0.6097
|
$68.98
|
|
Wet Corn Distillers
|
30.0
|
84.0
|
29.5
|
25.2
|
8.9
|
0.1537
|
0.1813
|
$74.55
|
|
Dry Corn Distillers
|
92.0
|
83.7
|
29.5
|
77.0
|
27.1
|
0.4710
|
0.5524
|
$228.05
|
|
Corn Gluten Feed
|
40.0
|
82.0
|
27.5
|
32.8
|
11.0
|
0.1870
|
0.2488
|
$94.67
|
|
40% Gluten Meal
|
91.0
|
86.0
|
43.9
|
78.3
|
39.9
|
0.7895
|
0.2543
|
$288.24
|
|
60% Gluten Meal
|
91.0
|
86.0
|
67.2
|
78.3
|
61.2
|
1.3208
|
- 0.2708
|
$384.76
|
|
Citrus Pulp
|
18.3
|
82.5
|
6.6
|
15.1
|
1.2
|
- 0.0105
|
0.2100
|
$26.02
|
|
Hominy - Corn
|
91.0
|
92.0
|
11.8
|
83.7
|
10.7
|
0.0428
|
1.0644
|
$162.71
|
|
Oat Hulls
|
93.0
|
35.0
|
3.8
|
32.6
|
3.5
|
0.0006
|
0.4297
|
$60.34
|
|
Oats - Mixed Feed
|
90.0
|
60.0
|
14.0
|
54.0
|
12.6
|
0.1698
|
0.5460
|
$130.77
|
|
Roasted Soybeans
|
92.0
|
93.5
|
41.3
|
86.0
|
38.0
|
0.7198
|
0.4255
|
$289.90
|
|
Rye Distillers - Wet
|
30.0
|
84.0
|
29.0
|
25.2
|
8.7
|
0.1499
|
0.1850
|
$73.86
|
|
Whey
|
7.0
|
78.0
|
14.0
|
5.5
|
1.0
|
0.0098
|
0.0625
|
$11.88
|
|
Wheat Bran
|
89.0
|
70.0
|
18.0
|
62.3
|
16.0
|
0.2330
|
0.5932
|
$157.63
|
|
Rice middlings
|
88.0
|
66.9
|
15.6
|
58.9
|
13.7
|
0.1849
|
0.5955
|
$142.53
|
|
Rendering By-products
|
|
Fat - Animal
|
95.0
|
200.0
|
|
190.0
|
0.0
|
- 0.5136
|
3.0191
|
$258.33
|
|
Feather Meal
|
93.0
|
67.7
|
91.4
|
63.0
|
85.0
|
1.9597
|
- 1.1038
|
$472.56
|
|
Blood Meal
|
92.0
|
65.0
|
86.0
|
59.8
|
79.1
|
1.8210
|
- 1.0091
|
$441.44
|
|
Fish Meal
|
90.0
|
70.0
|
67.0
|
63.0
|
60.3
|
1.3407
|
- 0.4922
|
$360.13
|
|
Meat and Bone Meal (Non-Ruminant Origin)
|
93.0
|
73.1
|
53.8
|
68.0
|
50.0
|
1.0691
|
- 0.1577
|
$320.04
|
|
Fruits and Vegetables
|
|
Apples
|
17.0
|
70.0
|
2.8
|
11.9
|
0.5
|
- 0.0202
|
0.1773
|
$18.35
|
|
Bananas
|
24.3
|
84.1
|
4.5
|
20.4
|
1.1
|
- 0.0278
|
0.2977
|
$32.76
|
|
Beets
|
13.0
|
80.3
|
12.6
|
10.4
|
1.6
|
0.0128
|
0.1253
|
$21.65
|
|
Bread
|
63.0
|
89.0
|
13.3
|
56.1
|
8.4
|
0.0584
|
0.6835
|
$114.37
|
|
Broccoli
|
11.0
|
70.0
|
33.0
|
7.7
|
3.6
|
0.0701
|
0.0325
|
$26.99
|
|
Cabbage
|
9.5
|
85.3
|
25.3
|
8.1
|
2.4
|
0.0383
|
0.0692
|
$21.96
|
|
Carrots
|
12.0
|
84.0
|
9.9
|
10.1
|
1.2
|
0.0025
|
0.1308
|
$19.11
|
|
Celery
|
6.0
|
62.0
|
15.3
|
3.7
|
0.9
|
0.0129
|
0.0364
|
$9.24
|
|
Lettuce
|
5.0
|
51.0
|
22.0
|
2.6
|
1.1
|
0.0207
|
0.0133
|
$8.47
|
|
Onions
|
9.0
|
57.6
|
12.6
|
5.2
|
1.1
|
0.0144
|
0.0543
|
$12.21
|
|
Potatoes
|
23.0
|
81.0
|
9.5
|
18.6
|
2.2
|
0.0044
|
0.2419
|
$35.28
|
|
Tomatoes
|
6.0
|
69.0
|
16.4
|
4.1
|
1.0
|
0.0135
|
0.0414
|
$10.11
|
e.g. to determine the value of wet distillers grain when corn is $140
per tonne and soybean meal is $320 per tonne:
(0.1537 x $320) + (0.1813 x $140) = $74.56
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