Other Crops
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Edible Beans | Pub 811:
Agronomy Guide> Other
Crops
Table of Contents
BuckwheatBuckwheat is a fast-growing summer annual with broad, heart-shaped leaves
and white flowers. It takes approximately 10-12 weeks from planting to
harvest. Buckwheat is frost sensitive and is usually planted later than
other field crops. Buckwheat is used for human consumption, as an ingredient in livestock
feeds and as a source for buckwheat honey. It is also commonly used as
a cover crop for weed suppression and green manure see Cover Crops. The
grain of buckwheat has an amino acid composition that includes lysine
and thus provides a more complete protein compared to other cereals. The most lucrative market is for the export of quality, large-seeded buckwheat to the Pacific-Rim countries, particularly Japan. Tillage Options and Seedbed Preparation
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| Growing Region | Maximum Rate of Nitrogen for Buckwheat (kg/ha) |
|---|---|
| Southern Ontario |
35
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| Northern Ontario |
55
|
Caution: Buckwheat is prone to lodging with high soil nitrogen.
Harvest and Storage
Harvest
Buckwheat is an indeterminate plant. Flowers, green seed and mature seed
are present on the plant at the same time. Harvest must occur prior to
the development of overripe seed. This will be approximately 10 weeks
after planting. At this time, the crop is still growing and flowering.
However 70%-75% of the seeds should be brown and mature and not yet dropping
from the bottom of the bloom spike. If harvest is delayed until the seeds
nearest the ground begin to fall, yields will be decreased due to seed
dropping, and the volunteer population will cause problems for the next
crop. Yields will vary depending on pollination and weather conditions.
Yields of 2.2 t/ha (40 bu/acre) are possible, but 1.1-1.6 t/ha (20-30
bu/acre) are more commonly reported.
Desiccation weakens the stem and causes lodging. Do not desiccate buckwheat.
Swathing should be done before combining if the crop has not been killed
by frost. Swathing is best done early in the morning when the dew is present
or in damp weather to help minimize losses due to shattered seed. Cut
the buckwheat, leaving a high stubble to facilitate drying. Leave it to
dry until moisture in the seed head reaches 16%.
When combining, reduce the pick-up speed to match the ground speed to minimize shattering. The draper-type of pick-up causes less shattering than the drum-type. To minimize breakage, reduce the cylinder speed to one-third (600-800 rpm) of that used for cereal grains and set the concaves to approximately 13-16 cm (51/4-61/2 in.) in the front and 9 mm (3/8 in.) in the rear. The upper sieve is set at 16 mm (5/8 in.) and the lower sieve at 8 mm (5/16 in.). If seed is dehulling, increase the concave size or lower the cylinder speed. The lower sieve can then be opened gradually to the setting that does not allow excess foreign material to pass through. Check that the wind blast is strong enough to remove the maximum amount of trash without blowing out clean grain.
Storage
A moisture content of less than 16% is needed for safe storage. The Japanese market buys only freshly harvested buckwheat, so do not store seed to sell the following year and do not mix old and new crops. It is easy to detect the difference between previously stored and newly harvested buckwheat by the colour of the grain just under the hull. Old seed oxidizes, and the light green layer just under the hull in new seed gradually changes to reddish-brown during storage.
Livestock Feed
Buckwheat grain can be used for livestock feed on a limited inclusion
in the ration. Buckwheat grain can be up to one-third of the grain concentrate
portion of the beef or dairy ration. More recent swine feeding research
with newer varieties of buckwheat found that the overall performance of
growing-finishing pigs was comparable to pigs fed cereal grains. However,
the price of buckwheat makes this less economical compared to feeding
cereals.
Caution: Feeding buckwheat fodder, whether fresh or dried, can have toxic effects. The primary effect is a photosensitization in animals with light-coloured skin (this includes cattle, goats, sheep, swine and turkey) exposed to the sun. Jaundice is a secondary toxic effect.
Weed Control
Weed control in buckwheat can be difficult and requires planning, since there are few herbicides available, particularly for broadleaf weed control. Since buckwheat is sown late, there is ample opportunity to control problem weeds with herbicides or cultivation before seeding. Do not use residual herbicides (i.e., residues from the triazine, sulfonylurea and trifluralin herbicides) before seeding.
Insects and Diseases
Buckwheat seldom has insect or disease concerns.
Flax
Flaxseed has many uses. Its major use has traditionally been in oil-based
paints and other protective coatings but it is also used in such things
as linoleum, printer's ink, soaps, putty, industrial lubricant and as
a salt-resistant coating for concrete highways and sidewalks. Flaxseed
contains 35%-40% linseed oil. After oil extraction, the remaining linseed
meal is used as a livestock protein supplement, averaging approximately
35% protein content. The addition of flax or flax byproducts in a variety
of foods has diversified this market.
In recent years, the acreage of flax grown for oilseed markets has been
quite limited in Ontario due to a lack of local crushing facilities. In
the early 1950s, Ontario grew over 30,000 ha (74,100 acres) of flax but
this has been reduced to less than 1,000 ha (2,470 acres) during the last
decade. More recent promotion of the health benefits of flaxseed and of
potential export markets for fibre flax may allow for a resurgence of
this crop in Ontario in some areas. More information on this crop in Canada
is available from the Flax Council
of Canada.
Unless otherwise stated, the recommendations given here refer to oilseed-type flax. Recommendations for fibre flax may be different, and more research may be needed for that crop.
Tillage
Conventional tillage is preferred. In most cases, this has been fall primary tillage followed by early spring tillage and planting. Secondary tillage should be shallow to set up a firm level seedbed. Packing either before or after planting is recommended. Crop success to date has been better where surface crop residues are low. Some growers have experimented with no-till planting with some success. Use rotations similar to those for cereals or legume forages.
Variety Selection
Variety selection will be different for oilseed markets than for fibre
purposes. Until now, oilseed varieties have been the only commercially
produced flax grown in Canada. Oilseed varieties are grown specifically
for the oil extracted from the seed.
Solin is a new oilseed developed from flax using advanced crop-breeding
techniques. Solin oil contains less than 5% linolenic acid (compared to
the more than 50% contained in flaxseed oil), producing a light oil suitable
for cooking. Canadian Grain Commission Standards specify that Solin varieties
must have a yellow seedcoat.
Currently there are no organized flax variety trials in Ontario, however flax and Solin variety-trial results from Western Canada are available from the Flax Council of Canada.
Planting
Flax is planted using similar equipment to cereals, in narrow rows (15-20
cm or 6-8 in. apart). Using a grain drill usually results in a more even
seeding depth and plant emergence than broadcast seeding. Seed to a maximum
depth of 2.5 cm (1 in.), as there will typically be more than enough soil
moisture to stimulate germination in the spring. Deep seeding can significantly
delay emergence, particularly during cool, wet springs. Optimum seeding
rates are 35-50 kg/ha (31-45 lb/acre). Seeding rates higher than 50 kg/ha
(45 lb/acre), along with high nitrogen rates, can lead to excessive lodging,
making harvest difficult.
Sow as early as possible in the spring on a dry, firm seedbed. Early planting results in higher yields and makes the crop easier to harvest. Well-drained loam, silt loam or clay loam soils are preferred. Performance has been found to be poorer on sandy soils due to a limited root system that is susceptible to moisture stress during dry conditions because of a relatively short taproot. Generally, seedlings can withstand moderate frost.
Crop Development
Flax is an annual plant with a short taproot from which fibrous roots grow to depths of approximately 1.2 m (4 ft) in light soil. The height of the crop varies from 45-91 cm (18-36 in.), depending on growing conditions. In thick stands, only a main stem develops but in thin stands four or more tillers can be produced. Flowers may be white, blue, pink or violet, depending on variety. Flowers open late in the morning and drop by early afternoon. Flax flowers for 3 weeks or more if sufficient nutrients are present. Its flowers can self-pollinate, but insects can cross-pollinate between varieties. A seed capsule produces up to 10 seeds ranging in colour between reddish or deep brown to smoky yellow. The seed has mucilaginous material, giving it a sticky texture when wet.
Fertility Management
Flax recommendations for nitrogen are the same as for mixed grain (45 kg/ha or 40 lb/acre in Southern Ontario and 70 kg/ha or 62 lb/acre in Northern Ontario). Excessive nitrogen will make the crop lodge. A soil test is the best method of determining fertilizer requirements. See Table 7-2, Phosphate and Potash Recommendations for Buckwheat and Flax Based on OMAFRA-Accredited Soil Tests, Flaxseed is susceptible to fertilizer burn, so all fertilizer should be broadcast.
Harvesting and Storage
1 HR, MR, LR, RR and NR denote, respectively, high, medium,
low, rare and no probabilities of profitable crop response to applied
nutrients. Profitable response to applied nutrients occurs when the increase
in crop value, from increased yield or quality, is greater than the cost
of the applied nutrient.
2 No expected agronomic response from additional application
of nutrients. Ratings of "NR" may result in reduced yield or
affect nutrient balance in crops. For example, additional phosphorus application
to a soil >60 ppm phosphorus could induce a zinc deficiency on soils
low in zinc and might also increase the risk of phosphorus movement to
surface water, while additional potash application to a field already
>250 ppm K soil test could induce magnesium deficiency on soils low
in magnesium.
When using a summer planting system, wait until 7-10 days after a light fall frost before direct combining. Keep the cut as high as possible and ground speed low to prevent overloading the combine. To reduce breakage, pay attention to the amount of coarse material that is allowed to pass through so that only a minimum of seed enters the return.
Harvest
Flax typically yields about 1,200-2,000 kg/ha (1,100-1,800 lb/acre).
Flaxseed can be harvested by either direct combining or by swathing prior
to combining. Since flaxseed will continue to produce new vegetation throughout
the season, a preharvest dessicant will be needed if the crop is being
direct combined. Typically, growers will use glyphosate for this purpose.
Consult the product label for specific directions on pre-harvest applications.
Swathing, then combining, results in drier seed than direct combining.
Swathing should be done when approximately 90% of leaves have fallen off,
and the seeds have turned dark brown. Flaxseed doesn't shatter as easily
as other grains. Weedy crops should be swathed to allow weeds and straw
to dry out before harvest. Leave 15 cm (6 in.) of straw stubble in the
field to keep windrows off the ground. Under good drying conditions, the
crop can be combined 3-4 days after swathing.
Keep combine and swather cutter bars and guards sharp so as to reduce
the accumulation of immature flax straw on the knife. Combine flax when
the straw is dry and seeds rattle in the boll. Early-sown flax is easier
to thresh than late-sown flax because it has drier conditions to dry in
before being harvested. Batt reels should be used when direct combining,
because the pick-up reels cause problems with wrapping.
The general recommendation for combine adjustment is to close up the clearance between the cylinders and concave to about half that of cereal grains and slow down the cylinder. Fan speed settings should be fairly low as seed is easily blown out the back of the combine. A clean-looking sample in the bin is an indication that too much seed is being blown out. It is not unusual to have dockage levels of 5%-10%. Be sure to plug any holes in the grain tank, augers and elevators, because flax seed is extremely slippery and will flow through small holes.
Storage
Flax is not normally stored on the farm but is shipped immediately after harvest. Optimum moisture is 10.5%. Higher moisture percentages will incur a drying and shrinkage charge. Proper storage is critical, since flax can spoil quickly. Storage bins must have all holes repaired, because flax can leak through very small openings. Remove green weeds and weed seeds to reduce the amount of dockage.
Straw Removal
Oilseed varieties of flax straw are not suitable for linen production
because of the short fibres in the stem. The flax straw is slow to rot
in the soil and is usually a problem for tillage operations following
harvest or in the following crop season. Make every effort to find a use
for the straw so that it can be taken off the field. Flax straw is sometimes
used in feedlots as bedding. The straw has also been used as a heat fuel
source when burned in large furnaces.
Weed Control
Flax is a poor competitor with weeds. Flax does not form a dense canopy
to shade the ground, so weeds have a chance to establish. Plant flax in
relatively weed-free fields whenever possible. Do not plant flax in fields
with tremendous perennial and "problem" weeds, as herbicide
options to control such species are limited.
For herbicide options and recommendations, see OMAFRA Publication 75, Guide to Weed Control.
Insects and Diseases
Insects and diseases are typically not a concern in flax production.
Sunflower
Sunflowers have been grown in Ontario for several decades. The main market for Ontario sunflowers has been the birdseed and confectionery markets. Both black seeded and striped sunflower seeds are sold into the birdseed markets. There are no sunflower oilseed crushing markets in Ontario. Acreage in Ontario has varied from 500-1,000 ha (1,235-2,470 acres) per year during the past 10 years.
Tillage
Sunflowers require a firm, moist seedbed that is weed free. Conventional
tillage is usually preferred over no-till, as the tillage is beneficial
to control weeds.
The best crop performance is usually on medium-textured soils that are
naturally well drained: loam, silty loam or silty clay loam. Sunflowers
can also grow well on sandy soils, but yield will be reduced under moisture
stress during dry conditions. Avoid poorly drained soils as they will
delay planting, slow the rate of growth and cause a higher risk of disease.
1 HR, MR, LR, RR and NR denote, respectively, high, medium,
low, rare and no probabilities of profitable crop response to applied
nutrient. Profitable response to applied nutrients occurs when the increase
in crop value, from increased yield or quality, is greater than the cost
of the applied nutrient.
2 No expected agronomic response from additional application
of nutrients. Ratings of "NR" may result in reduced yield or
affect nutrient balance in crops. For example, additional phosphorus application
to a soil >60 ppm phosphorus could induce a zinc deficiency on soils
low in zinc and might also increase the risk of phosphorus movement to
surface water, while additional potash application to a field already
>250 ppm K soil test could induce magnesium deficiency on soils low
in magnesium.
Variety Selection
There are no sunflower variety trials conducted in Ontario. Variety testing
is conducted through the National
Sunflower Association of Canada.
Sunflowers can be classified as either oil or confectionery. Oil-type
sunflowers have black hulls and can be conventional hybrids, dwarf hybrids,
mid-oleic or open pollinated varieties. Dwarf hybrids mature 6-13 days
earlier than conventional hybrids. Open pollinated sunflower (Sunola)
varieties are shorter and require less heat to mature than normal sunflowers,
but they do not have good disease resistance.
Non-oil-type sunflowers have striped hulls and are grown for the human
food market. Only the largest of the confection sunflowers are used for
human consumption, but these varieties have little tolerance for bird
or insect damage.
Hybrids have many advantages over open-pollinated varieties. Hybrids
have approximately 20% greater yield, better disease resistance (especially
downy mildew, rust and verticillium wilt), a high degree of self-compatibility,
which reduces the need for bees to pollinate, and more uniform height
and moisture content at harvest.
Sunflowers are tall, broad-leafed, usually single-stemmed plants, with one head per plant. The stem is hairy and becomes fibrous as the plant matures. Plants are heliotropic, which means that the heads face east by morning and west by evening, following the day's sun. They have a deep taproot system, which allows them access to deep water and nutrient supply that is generally unavailable for many other annual crops. As a result, sunflowers can handle dry soil conditions better than most crops.
Planting
Sunflowers are usually planted in early May, similar to corn, and usually
bloom in late July. They require approximately 100-120 days to mature.
Seedlings are relatively tolerant to frost up to the four-leaf stage.
A delay in planting beyond May 15 will increase the risk of frost damage
prior to maturity in the fall. When delays in planting are unavoidable,
use early-season hybrids/varieties.
Optimum planting depth is 3-5 cm (11/4-2 in.) and not more than 8 cm
(31/4 in.), in moist soil. Shallow planting is suited to cold, wet, fine-textured
soil. Sunflowers are prone to lodging in heavier soils or where there
is heavy rain and wind.
The ideal row width is 60-90 cm (24-36 in.). Use a corn planter with appropriate seed adjustments or a grain drill with some of the runs plugged. Grain drills typically give poorer emergence. The recommended seeding rate is 40,000-60,000 plants/ha (16,000-24,000 plants/acre). Confection sunflowers should not be seeded at a rate greater than 18,000 plants/acre, to help encourage large seed size. Plant 25% more seed than the desired plant population. Narrow row spacing (18-25 cm or 7-10 in.) and solid stands increase the risk of white mould. Less lodging occurs if rows are planted east to west, as sunflower heads face to the east and cause plants to bend toward the east.
Rotation
Do not plant sunflowers in the same field more than once every 4-5 years,
due to disease build-up. Canola, dry edible beans, soybeans and buckwheat
are all hosts of white mould (Sclerotinia). Monitor rotations with these
crops closely or avoid them altogether.
Volunteer sunflowers can also be a problem in some crop rotations. Sunflowers are sensitive to atrazine and other herbicide carryover, such as from some of the sulphonylurea (ALS) herbicides.
Fertility Management
The recommended amount of nitrogen for sunflowers is 90 kg/ha (80 lb/acre). The most efficient use of nitrogen is when most of the nitrogen fertilizer is applied as a side-dress before the plants are 30 cm (12 in.) tall. Test your soil to determine the phosphorous and potash requirements (see Soil Testing, on page 155, and Table 7-3, Phosphate and Potash Recommendations for Sunflowers Based on OMAFRA-Accredited Soil Tests.
Harvest and Storage
Harvest
Typical sunflower yields in Ontario range from 1,500-2,000 kg/ha (1,300-1,800
lb/acre). Plants are ready for harvesting when the back of the heads turn
yellow, and bracts around the head are brown, hard and dry. Seeds at this
stage have approximately 50% moisture. Harvest is normally in September
to mid-October.
In Ontario, if a crop is late maturing, drying will be facilitated by
a killing frost. Use of a desiccant is therefore typically not required.
However, early frost may reduce yield and oil content. To avoid this,
harvest at a higher percentage moisture and dry seeds to reduce shatter
loss and exposure to birds. Minimize the period between maturity and harvest
to prevent bird damage and head rot.
Sunflowers are harvested with a combine equipped with a small grain head. Most combines are adapted with long seed-gathering pans extending in front of the cutter bar to collect and salvage shattered seed. The reel is typically removed or raised for sunflower harvest. To prevent seed damage, use the slowest cylinder speeds with the largest openings. Reduce air flow to prevent seeds from being blown through the back.
Storage
After harvest, clean seed to remove trash. For proper storage, seed must contain 9.5% moisture or less. Seed at a higher moisture content should be dried immediately after harvest. Sunflowers dry easily in conventional grain dryers. Confection types may wrinkle or be scorched. Allow to cool before storing.
Caution
Dry at a low temperature, because fine hairs and fibres from the seed
coat could ignite when put through the drying fan.
In general, bins will hold 70% as much tonnage of sunflower as corn.
They can be stored for short periods at up to 12% moistures. Higher moisture
or warm seeds may result in spoilage.
Weed Control
Sunflower seedlings suffer from weed competition. If weeds are not controlled
early in the season, crop performance is reduced. As sunflowers mature,
they become more able to compete with weeds.
The crop can be harrowed before seedling emergence to remove emerging
weeds before they become established. A light spring-tooth harrowing can
be done when sunflower seedlings are between the four- and six-leaf stage
to remove late-emerging weeds. Harrowing is best done under hot, dry conditions
to reduce crop damage. Inter-row cultivation is also recommended.
For herbicide recommendations, see OMAFRA Publication 75, Guide to Weed Control.
Insects
Insects are typically not a problem in sunflowers.
Individual descriptions of insects, pests and diseases, scouting and
management strategies can be found in Chapter
13, Insects and Pests of Field Crops, and Chapter
14, Diseases of Field Crops.
Recommended treatments to control insects, pests and diseases can be found in OMAFRA Publication 812, Field Crop Protection Guide.
For more information:
Toll Free: 1-877-424-1300
Local: (519) 826-4047
E-mail: ag.info.omafra@ontario.ca
| Author: | OMAFRA Staff |
|---|---|
| Creation Date: | 30 April 2009 |
| Last Reviewed: | 30 April 2009 |