Forages: Species
| Corn |
Soybeans | Forages
| Cereals | Dry
Edible Beans |
| Spring and Winter Canola
| Other Crops | Soil
Management |
| Soil Fertility and Nutrient
Use | Field Scouting
|
| On-Farm Stored Grain Management
| Weed Control |
| Insects and Pests of Field
Crops | Diseases of Field
Crops | Appendices |
Pub 811:
Agronomy Guide > Forages
> Species
Order OMAFRA Publication
811: Agronomy Guide for Field Crops
Perennial Legumes
Most legumes grown for forages have taproots and broad, compound leaves
(composed of a number of leaflets) that are arranged alternately on the
stem. New shoots originate from the crown of the plant, and the growing
point of each shoot is located at the top of the shoot. As a family, legumes
produce higher quantities of protein than grasses.
If properly inoculated, legumes have the capacity to use atmospheric
nitrogen, eliminating the need to apply nitrogen from commercial sources.
Legumes also supply a considerable amount of nitrogen to the grass portion
of the mixture.
Alfalfa
Alfalfa is the highest-yielding perennial forage crop grown in Ontario
and the most frequently grown forage legume. It produces more protein
per unit area than other forage legumes and can be grown alone or in combination
with various grass species. For high yields and persistence, alfalfa requires
well-drained soil, a pH above 6.1, adequate fertility and proper harvest
management. Well-managed alfalfa normally persists for 3 or more years.
The protein and energy levels of alfalfa-based forage are determined by
stage of growth at the time of cutting. Alfalfa has a 6-week critical
fall harvest period that should be observed to avoid winterkill.
Birdsfoot Trefoil
Birdsfoot trefoil is a non-bloating legume best suited for permanent
pasture situations. It will reseed itself, making it an excellent choice
for steep or stony land not suited to cultivation. Although individual
plants live for only a few years, stands of birdsfoot trefoil have remained
productive for 10 or more years when allowed to go to seed. It is also
well adapted to soils with marginal drainage. Birdsfoot trefoil has a
lower yield potential and is more difficult to dry than alfalfa, so it
is recommended for hay production only in areas where alfalfa will not
grow well. Since birdsfoot trefoil seedlings are slow to establish, at
least a year is required to get a satisfactory stand. Birdsfoot trefoil,
similar to alfalfa, has a critical fall harvest period, beginning about
10 days earlier than alfalfa.
Red Clover
Red clover is a short-lived perennial. Yields are good the year after
establishment but are often quite low the following year, especially in
Southern Ontario. It can be grown in fields that are too wet or acidic
for alfalfa. When seeded in mixtures, red clover can suppress the establishment
of other legumes. As a feed crop, red clover is most often stored as silage
since it is difficult to dry, and often results in "dusty" or
"mouldy" hay.
There are two general types of red clover grown in Ontario: double-cut
or "medium" red clover and single-cut or "mammoth"
red clover. Double-cut will flower in the seeding year, with vigorous
regrowth after cutting. Single-cut is slower growing and matures about
2 weeks later than double-cut. Single-cut does not flower in the seeding
year or after the first cut in succeeding years.
Use of red clover as a plowdown has become an important practice on many
farms. See Chapter 8, Soil Management,
for information on the use of red clover as a cover crop.
White Clover
White clover is used mainly in pastures. It is a short-lived perennial
that can reseed itself. There are three general types of white clover:
ladino, white dutch and small wild white. All three are similar in appearance
but differ in size, with wild white being the smallest and ladino the
largest. All have stolons, which are stems that creep on the ground, with
branches that are erect or upward slanting. Roots are shallow and fibrous
and develop from nodes of the creeping stolons. White clover has low tolerance
to drought but is relatively tolerant to frequent grazing and has good
palatability. White clover can be frost seeded or no-tilled into existing
grass pastures to improve forage quality and yield.
Sweet Clover
Sweet clover is a slow-growing biennial often used to alleviate compaction.
Sweet clover does not flower in the year of establishment. In the spring
of the second year, it grows quickly to become a tall, coarse-stemmed
plant. The presence of coumarin in sweet clover makes it less palatable
to livestock.
There are two types of sweet clover: white-flowered and yellow-flowered.
White sweet clover is deeper rooted, taller and coarser, which makes it
more suitable for plowdown than for forage. The yellow-flowered is more
palatable to livestock and more attractive to bees. Mouldy sweet clover
hay may contain dicoumarol, which can prevent normal blood clotting and
result in the death of livestock from bleeding.
Alsike Clover
Alsike clover is a perennial although it is often treated as a biennial.
It can grow on soils that are acidic and poorly drained. Alsike produces
only one cut of hay per year and is not normally a preferred forage legume.
Alsike clover can cause photosensitivity and liver damage in horses, so
it should not be included in horse hay or pasture mixtures.
Kura Clover
Kura clover is a pasture legume relatively new to Ontario. Kura clover
has poor seedling vigour and is difficult to establish. However, once
established, kura clover is very persistent, winter-hardy and can tolerate
less-than-ideal drainage, fertility, pH and grazing management. It spreads
by underground stems called rhizomes, has an extensive root system and
thickens with time. Proper seedbed preparation and seeding methods are
important. Kura clover must be inoculated with the correct strain of Rhizobium
bacteria.
Perennial Grasses
Grasses have many long, slender leaves that are borne on a stem. They
have very fibrous roots that help bind the soil together, thereby reducing
erosion. Some grasses have rhizomes or underground stems that produce
new shoots at each node. Grasses with rhizomes are capable of thickening
up a stand. Grasses without rhizomes are known as bunch grasses.
Grass species differ in their competitiveness with legumes. This will
influence the grass-to-legume ratio of an established stand. Grasses such
as orchardgrass and the ryegrasses tend to be more competitive with alfalfa
than timothy or bromegrass. Grasses are lower in protein than legumes
when cut at a similar stage of development.
Timothy
Timothy is the most widely sown forage grass in Ontario and is commonly
grown in mixtures with alfalfa or birdsfoot trefoil. It is a bunchgrass
with limited tillering ability, which makes it non-aggressive when sown
with other species. It is easy to establish in early spring or late summer
and is adapted to heavier soils and variable drainage. Timothy is palatable
and high yielding in first cut. Although some varieties have been developed
for improved regrowth, regrowth after first-cut and mid-season production
is not as high as that from either bromegrass or orchardgrass.
Smooth Bromegrass
Smooth bromegrass is an earlier, more aggressive grass than timothy.
Better drought tolerance results in more regrowth in second cut. It spreads
by rhizomes, and the stand can thicken over time. Smooth bromegrass is
palatable and tends to retain its nutritional value with increasing maturity
better than most grasses. Its major drawback tends to be its large fluffy
seed, which makes it difficult to seed through the small seed box of drills.
It does not establish well if it is either surface seeded or seeded deeper
than 5 cm (2 in.).
Meadow Bromegrass
Meadow bromegrass is useful as a pasture species because of its early
spring growth and faster recovery rate after grazing. It is best used
in rotational grazing.
Orchardgrass
Orchardgrass develops earlier and is much more aggressive than timothy
or bromegrass. It is palatable when young but loses palatability and digestibility
more quickly than other grasses. Plant breeders have developed newer varieties
that are later maturing, do not decline in palatability and digestibility
as early and match more closely the maturity of other species in a mixture.
Orchardgrass will grow much more vigorously in the warm, dry conditions
of midsummer than timothy or bromegrass, resulting in a greater proportion
of grass in the second and third cutting of alfalfa-grass mixtures. Orchardgrass
is not as winter-hardy as either timothy or bromegrass and will not persist
in wet soils. Its aggressive seedlings make orchardgrass easy to establish.
It is recommended for intensively managed pastures or as very early-cut
haylage.
Reed Canarygrass
Reed canarygrass is best known for its ability to tolerate poorly drained
soils. It can, however, provide high yields on well-drained soils and
will produce higher yields than other grass species during dry conditions.
Reed canarygrass spreads by rhizomes. It develops coarse stems and leaves,
and quickly loses palatability and digestibility after heading. Regrowth
is vegetative and does not form a seed head, so second- and third-cuts
can be high quality. Reed canarygrass is slow to establish and is not
competitive in the year of seeding.
In the past, livestock have performed poorly on reed canarygrass because
of certain alkaloids it contained. Current recommended reed canarygrass
varieties are free of tryptomine and carboline alkaloids, which cause
poor performance. Some varieties are lower in the gramine alkaloids that
reduce palatability, intake and animal performance.
Tall Fescue
Tall fescue is a coarse, leafy grass that is useful in long-term pastures
and erosion control. It is adapted to most soil types, tolerates imperfect
drainage and withstands animal traffic well. Its ability to maintain good
feed quality into late fall makes it useful in "stockpile grazing"
or fall-saved pasture for deferred grazing. A seed-borne systemic fungus
(an endophyte) has been linked to poor animal performance on tall fescue
pasture. Once introduced by infected seed, the fungus cannot be controlled
in an established stand of tall fescue. All recommended varieties are
endophyte-free.
Meadow Foxtail
Meadow foxtail is a long-lived perennial grass that resembles timothy
in appearance and is suitable for intensive pasture management. It performs
well on poorly drained soils, has very early spring growth and matures
early. Midsummer production during periods of high temperature and drought
may be low. Its seed is light, fluffy and hairy; coated seed should be
used.
Creeping Red Fescue
Creeping red fescue is a dense, sod-forming grass that establishes and
spreads vigorously on most soil types, including well-fertilized subsoils.
Its solid root system and thick, fine top growth make creeping red fescue
an excellent grass for streambank or grass waterway protection. It can
also serve as a bottom grass in long-term pastures and is noted for its
extended growth period and retained nutritional value in the fall. Its
low-growing habit makes it difficult to cut and unsuitable for hay.
Meadow Fescue
Meadow fescue is a hardy grass used in hay and pasture mixtures. It grows
best on deep, fertile soils, but will tolerate variable drainage and low
fertility. Meadow fescue yields well during the summer and fall and maintains
its feed quality later into the season than most grass species. Meadow
fescue is shorter, has finer leaves and a shallower root system than tall
fescue and is not as persistent.
Perennial Ryegrass
Perennial ryegrass is a short-lived perennial that comes in turf, pasture
and hay-adapted varieties. The pasture-adapted varieties tend to have
finer leaves, smaller and more numerous tillers, and are later maturing
than the hay varieties. Turf-type perennial ryegrasses contain endophytes,
so they should not be used for forage. Perennial ryegrass is early and
vigorous in the spring, and grows well into the fall, but is unproductive
during the hot, dry summer months. Excessive top growth of perennial ryegrass
can result in winterkill, in alfalfa mixtures that are left to over-winter.
Perennial ryegrass is not well suited to areas with prolonged ice cover
and extreme cold without adequate snow cover.
Bluegrass
In Ontario, two common bluegrasses, Canada and Kentucky, grow on approximately
400,000 ha (1 million acres) of permanent pastureland. In Southern Ontario,
the shallow-rooted bluegrasses produce lush, palatable growth during the
spring but are unproductive during the dry, hot summer. When properly
fertilized and managed, bluegrass production can be markedly improved,
especially under the cooler climate of northern Ontario. In pastures,
they serve as a bottom grass that controls weed invasion, withstands close
grazing and tramping, and fills in when other species thin out.
Table 3-1 Characteristics of Perennial
Forage Species Grown in Ontario
| Species |
Suitability |
Persistence
(years) |
Stengths |
Cautions |
|
Legumes
|
| Alfalfa |
Stored Feed |
3-4 S. Ont.
1-4 N. Ont.
|
Excellent quality
Excellent yield
|
May cause bloat
Poor persistence under grazing
Low tolerance to acidic or variably drained soil
Needs fall rest period |
| Birdsfoot trefoil |
Pasture
Stored feed
|
5+
(may reseed itself)
|
High quality
No bloat hazard
Good tolerance to acidic & variably drained soil
|
Slow to establish
Slow spring growth and regrowth
Needs fall rest period
Unpalatable to horses |
| Red clover |
Pasture
Stored feed
Plowdown
|
1-3
|
Excellent first-year yield
Easy to establish
High quality
Good tolerance to acidic or variably drained soil
|
Difficult to dry for hay
May cause bloat
Stand thins rapidly
May cause temporary infertility in grazing sheep
Very competitive, especially with other legumes |
| White clover |
Pasture |
5+
|
Excellent quality and palatability
Good tolerance to close grazing
|
May cause bloat
Low drought tolerance |
| Kura clover |
Pasture |
5+
|
Persistent
High quality
|
Difficult to establish
May cause bloat |
| Alsike clover |
Pasture
Stored feed
|
1-2
(may reseed
|
Very good tolerance to wet, acidic soils
Good quality
|
Lower yield than red clover
Regrowth yields low
Stand thins rapidly
May cause bloat |
| Sweet clover |
Plowdown
Stored feed
|
2
|
Excellent soil builder
Opens up subsoil
Excellent bee pasture
|
Low palatability unless harvested early
Coumarin content in older varieties causes feeding difficulties
Only 1 harvest-year |
|
Grasses
|
| Timothy |
Stored feed |
5+
|
Easy to establish
Good tolerance to variable drainage
Seed is inexpensive
|
Poor summer production
Poor persistence of late-heading varieties under three-cut harvest
system |
| Smooth bromegrass |
Pasture
Stored feed
|
5+
|
Excellent spring/fall yield
Good regrowth
Better quality retention with maturity |
Large seed size may cause seeding challenges |
| Meadow bromegrass |
Pasture
Stored feed
|
5+
|
Early spring growth
Fast recovery after cutting or grazing
Good winter-hardiness
Good palatability
|
Large seed size may cause seeding challenges
Sensitive to flooding
Spreads less by rhizomes than smooth bromegrass |
| Orchardgrass |
Pasture
Stored feed
|
5
|
Very early pasture
Excellent regrowth
Good drought tolerance
Good tolerance to close grazing
Very responsive to nitrogen
|
Rapidly loses quality and palatability with
maturity
Very competitive with other species
Poor tolerance to variable drainage and icing |
| Reed canarygrass |
Pasture
Stored feed
|
5+
|
Excellent yield on both variably drained and
dry soils
Good regrowth
Very responsive to nitrogen
|
Slow to establish
First-cut rapidly loses quality and palatability with maturity
Poor tolerance to close grazing or frequent cutting |
| Creeping red fescue |
Pasture
Grass
Waterways
|
5+
|
Good feed quality in fall
Easy to establish
Good tolerance to close grazing and to acidic soils
Good regrowth
|
Low seasonal yield
Low palatability |
| Meadow fescue |
Pasture Stored feed |
5+
|
More suitable for managed gazing than as stored
feed
Grows in early spring and late fall
Tolerant to variably drained soil
More palatable than tall fescue
Prevents erosion in waterways
|
Coated seed required
Very competitive with other species
Low drought tolerance
Low quality with maturity
Less persistent and lower yielding than tall fescue |
| Tall fescue |
Pasture
Stored feed
Grass
Waterways
|
5+
|
High yield
Good summer growth
Good feed quality in fall for stockpile grazing
Good tolerance to acidic soil
|
Coarse leaves and low palatability
Need endophyte-free seed |
| Perennial ryegrass |
Pasture
Stored feed
|
2-3 S. Ont.
|
Excellent quality and palatability
Establishes very quickly
Good tolerance to close grazing
|
Poor drought and heat tolerance
Poor tolerance to variably drained soils
Variable persistence |
| Kentucky bluegrass |
Pasture
Grass
Waterways
|
5+
|
Good quality and palatability
Good tolerance to close grazing
|
Poor summer production
Very slow to establish
Low seasonal yield |
Annual Forages
The main annual crop used to provie forage is corn, which is harvested
as corn silage. See Selecting
Hybrids for Sillage.
There are several options for annual forage crops. They can be part of
a planned cropping program or an emergency remedy to provide feed when
perennial forage crops are winterkilled or in short supply. Annual forages
are a valuable source of hay, pasture, silage or green feed.
Winter Cereals (Rye, Triticale, Wheat)
Fall rye, winter triticale and winter wheat can provide fall and early-spring
grazing. Adequate nitrogen fertility in the spring will provide good stored
feed yields by late May. Feed quality decreases as the crop matures. If
seeded between August 15 and 31, fall rye can be available for grazing
7 weeks later. Fall rye will produce a larger volume of spring forage
than winter triticale or wheat. Fertilize rye to be spring grazed with
50-80 kg/ha (45-70 lb/acre) of nitrogen just before the rye turns green
in the spring. Rye will begin to head out after mid-May if not grazed
closely.
Winter triticale seed can be difficult to source. Seed 100-125 kg/ha
(90-110 lb/acre) at a similar time to fall wheat. Fertilize early in the
spring with 80 kg/ha (70 lb/acre) of nitrogen for spring grazing or stored
feed. Winter triticale provides early spring grazing similar to fall rye.
Spring Cereals (Oat, Barley, Triticale)
Spring cereals are very adaptable for forage production as hay, silage
or pasture. Oat and barley are used extensively as companion crops for
perennial forage seedings and are usually harvested as silage to improve
the establishment of the perennial forage seeding.
Seed cereals at any time in the season. Early spring planting promotes
maximum yields and production. Nitrogen fertilizer enhances vegetative
growth, and therefore 30-50 kg/ha (27-45 lb/acre) of nitrogen are recommended.
Cutting or grazing can usually begin 6-8 weeks after seeding. Forage quality
drops quickly after heading, so harvesting at the late-boot to early-heading
stage will maximize feed value. Yield will increase as plants mature,
but feed quality drops dramatically. Silage should be wilted to 50%-65%
moisture.
Cereal silages are higher in protein than corn silage but usually lower
than good-quality alfalfa haylage. Energy values are lower than corn silage
and often comparable to alfalfa haylage.
Oat is preferred over barley for pasturing and hay due to their higher
palatability. Mixed grain and spring wheat can also be used for forage.
For more information on spring cereal mixtures, see the OMAFRA Factsheet,
Forage Production From Spring
Cereals and Cereal-Pea Mixtures, Order No. 98-041, or visit the website
at www.ontario.ca/crops.
Cereal-Pea Mixtures
Field peas seeded in mixtures with cereals will enhance feed quality.
Pea mixtures can increase protein levels and improve forage digestibility
if the peas make up at least 50% (by weight) of the seed mixture. Adding
peas will increase seed costs. Forage pea varieties are preferred. Avoid
using a semi-leafless pea variety in order to maximize leaf yield. Oat
with peas may be used as a companion crop for seeding alfalfa but should
be harvested for silage. Cut as the oat is heading out - the peas will
be just starting to pod. This growth stage will typically occur around
the last week of June.
Mixtures of spring triticale and peas can be grown as a forage crop.
Seeding rates and crop management are similar to that for oat and peas.
Mixtures of triticale and peas usually have more peas in the harvested
forage than mixtures of oat and peas. This tends to increase quality but
makes wilting slower and increases the length of time the crop must cure
before ensiling.
Forage Soybeans
Soybeans are primarily grown in Ontario for oilseed production. However,
soybeans can provide a source of high-quality forage as an annual crop.
Whole plant soybeans with good pod formation will have similar protein
levels and digestibility to alfalfa. Soybeans can be harvested for silage
but are difficult to cure for hay.
Take plant height and branching ability into consideration when selecting
the variety. Forage soybean varieties have been developed. A solid-seeded
planting with a grain drill at a seeding rate of 80-100 kg/ha (70-90 lb/acre)
will provide a productive canopy for forage production. Check herbicide
labels for registered use restrictions. Harvest soybean forage just as
the lower leaves on the plant are beginning to yellow. In Ontario, this
usually coincides with the first week in September. Only one cut per season
is harvested.
Warm-Season Annual Grasses
Members of the sorghum, sudangrass and millet families are semi-arid,
tropical, warm-season annual grasses. Warm-season annual grasses are often
considered in emergency forage situations where alfalfa has winterkilled
or when planting has been delayed. They offer advantages over corn silage
in that they can be produced with conventional forage seeding and harvesting
equipment. They can be used in Ontario for silage (chopped or wrapped
large bale), green chop or pasture. Sorghums and sudangrass are not recommended
as dry hay because they are difficult to cure. Millet is frequently used
as haylage or possibly hay, with good drying conditions.
Do not feed sorghums and sudangrass to horses, as they can cause cystitis,
an inflammation of the bladder.
Millets
The name "millet" has been given to numerous grasses with small
edible seeds. Most millet types, including Japanese, proso, foxtail, barnyard,
Koda, finger and Teff, have short (0.3-1.2 m or 1-4 ft), slim stalks.
Pearl millet is the exception, with thicker stalks that are over twice
as long (1.5-3 m or 5-10 ft). The millets commonly used for forage in
Ontario are pearl millet and Japanese millet. With proper management,
millets can produce forage with very good quality.
Millets have a smaller stem than sorghums and slightly higher total digestible
nutrients (TDN) and protein levels. Millets may be preferred over some
sorghums for pasturing or green chop because they do not contain prussic
acid. Millets and sorghums can be easily damaged by grazing and therefore
should be strip grazed.
Pearl Millet
Pearl millet grows with a mass of very fine fibrous secondary roots
and tillers. It exhibits drought tolerance and prefers a lighter sand
or sandy loam. Pearl millet can be planted when there is no risk of frost
and when soil temperatures are 12°C or warmer. While the last week
of May or early June is typically the best time to seed, planting can
be delayed until the first of July. The recommended seeding rate is 8—10
kg/ha (7—9 lb/acre) at a 0.5—1 cm (¼—½ in.)
planting depth. Growth habits and yields of forage pearl millets are similar
to those of sorghum-sudan hybrids.
Quality and quantity of forage produced will be determined by the stage
of maturity when harvested. For high feed quality, first-cut is usually
ready about 55-60 days after planting, when it is still vegetative. Second-cut
is ready about 30—35 days later. Leaving at least 10 cm (4 in.) of
stubble results in faster regrowth. When grazing, about 15-20 cm (6—8
in.) of stubble should be left for faster regrowth.
To achieve high yields and protein levels, forage pearl millet will require
more nitrogen than the older millet types, but optimum rates have not
been determined. The general nitrogen recommendation is likely similar
to sorghum-sudan hybrids, split half at planting and half following first
cut if a second cut is to be harvested. This split application of nitrogen
will optimize yield and quality. There are limited weed control options
for pearl millet. Using a stale seedbed practice will improve establishment.
For more information on weed control, see OMAFRA
Publication 75, Guide to Weed Control.
Sorghum Family
Members of the sorghum family used for forage include forage sorghums,
sudangrass and various hybrids. There is considerable variability in agronomic
and nutritional quality traits among species, hybrids and varieties.
Sorghum and Sorghum-Sudangrass
Forage sorghum and sorghum-sudangrass grow tall and have the potential
for high yields. Older forage sorghum varieties were adapted to a high-yield,
lower forage-quality, single-cut harvest. Grain sorghums, also called
milo, are not recommended for forage production due to low dry-matter
yields.
Newer forage sorghum hybrids have been developed to be grown as a short
season, two-cut, high-quality forage. Hybrid forage sorghums have fine
fibrous secondary roots and tillers, giving them better drought tolerance.
Forage sorghums will tolerate heavier soils better than pearl millet.
Optimum growth of these plants occurs under hot, moist conditions.
Planting forage sorghums should occur after the risk of frost has past
and soil temperatures are above 12°C, typically the last week of May
or early June. Seeding rates range from 10-30 kg/ha (9-27 lb/acre). Lower
rates can be used under ideal planting conditions and in wider row widths.
Generally, higher seeding rates should be used in narrow row widths and
under poorer seeding conditions Seed dealers can recommend the seeding
rate for the specific variety. Planting depth should be 0.5-1 cm (¼-½
in.). Fertilize with phosphorus and potash according to soil test. The
nitrogen recommendation is 50-100 kg/ha (45-90 lb/acre). A split application
of nitrogen, half at seeding and half after the first cut, will optimize
yield and quality. For weed control, see OMAFRA
Publication 75, Guide to Weed Control.
The stage of maturity is the most important factor influencing the quality
and quantity of forage produced. Typically, forage sorghums are ready
for harvesting 60-65 days after planting (late July or early August) and
a second cut will be ready 30-35 days later. For faster regrowth, leave
at least 10 cm (4 in.) of stubble when cutting, or 15-20 cm (6-8 in.)
when grazing. A one-cut silage system will greatly improve yields but
at the expense of feed quality. Feed quality drops dramatically after
heading. The crop should be wilted and ensiled at about 65% moisture content.
Forage sorghum and sorghum-sudan varieties with brown midrib (BMR) characteristics
have been developed with significantly increased fibre digestibility (NDFd).
BMR is a genetic mutation that reduces the amount of lignin in the stalk
but can also increase the potential for lodging.
Sudangrass
Sudangrass is used for pasturing. It has pencil-size stems and is palatable
even after it heads out. Grazing should be delayed until the crop reaches
45 cm (18 in.). Under rotational grazing, the crop will remain productive
and succulent throughout the season. Sudangrass can tolerate slightly
wetter soils than the other sorghums but does best on medium- to well-drained
soils.
Prussic Acid Poisoning
Prussic acid (hydrogen cyanide) poisoning of livestock is a possible
concern if feeding sorghums and sudan grass. Young or immature plants,
plants suffering from drought stress or plants that have been exposed
to frost can contain a higher level of prussic acid. High-nitrogen fertilizer
also increases the potential toxicity. Some newer hybrid forage sorghums
may have lower levels of prussic acid. Prussic acid poisoning is not a
concern with millets. To reduce the risk of prussic acid poisoning:
- Do not graze pastures or green chop stands less than 45-60 cm (18-24
in.) tall.
- Do not green chop or ensile sorghum over 76 cm (30 in.) tall for
3 days after a killing frost.
- Do not green chop plants under 45 cm (18 in.) tall for 3 weeks after
a killing frost.
- After a drought, do not graze animals on new growth following a rain.
- Use varieties with reduced prussic acid content.
Nitrate Poisoning
Abnormally high nitrate levels in forages can lead to nitrate poisoning
and even death in livestock, and formation of silo gas if the crop is
ensiled. Of the various forages, sudan-sorghum and cereals can accumulate
the highest levels, forage grasses accumulate intermediate levels, while
legumes accumulate levels low enough to rarely be considered a problem.
Nitrate poisoning can also be a concern with green chop corn and corn
silage.
Nitrate levels are only a problem under abnormal growing conditions,
such as:
- very high soil levels of nitrogen (i.e., excessive rates of nitrogen
fertilizer or manure or combinations of these along with legume plowdown)
- a long drought, followed by rain. In this situation, delay harvest
for 10 days after rainfall, to allow conversion of nitrates to protein.
- any condition that kills the leaves, while roots and stems remain
active and accumulate nitrates (such as frost, hail and sometimes drought)
Suspect feeds can be tested for nitrate levels. Ensiling will reduce
the nitrate level in the forage. Note that when high nitrate forage is
ensiled, deadly nitrogen dioxide gas can be produced see Silo
Gas
Forage Brassicas
Forage Rape, Kale and Stubble Turnips
Forage rape, kale and stubble turnips are excellent crops for providing
high-quality pasture from September to December. See Table
8-10, Characteristics of Cover Crops Grown in Ontario, or OMAFRA
Publication 19, Pasture Production, for more information.
Annual Ryegrass
Annual ryegrass is a rapidly growing bunchgrass that is adapted to a
wide range of soil conditions. It regrows continuously throughout the
season and has the potential to be highly productive, with enough rain
and nitrogen. It is a useful species for mid- to late-season production
but does poorly under high-temperature conditions. During periods of little
or no rainfall, the plants stop growing and may die.
Two types of ryegrass (with differing growth habits) are available.
Italian Ryegrasses
The Italian ryegrasses are short-lived perennials or biennials, but under
Ontario winter conditions behave like an annual. The Italian ryegrasses
remain vegetative without a seed-head, producing a lush, leafy growth
with high forage quality. They do not usually grow taller than 40 cm (16
in.) and are difficult to harvest as dry hay.
Westerwold Ryegrasses
The Westerwold type is a true annual and grows to 40-80 cm (16-32 in.)
high, making it suitable for pastures or hay crops. The Westerwold varieties
grow taller, produce stems and are therefore easier to harvest for hay.
They should be cut before or just at the heading stage since feed quality
decreases rapidly after heading.
Seeding should occur in early spring at a rate of 20-25 kg/ha (18-22
lb/acre) using a drill or cultipacker-type seeder. The seed should be
placed 1 cm (½ in.) deep and the seedbed rolled to enhance seed-soil
contact to promote good emergence from the light, fluffy seed.
Table 3-2, Characteristics of Annual Forage Crops
in Ontario, summarizes the characteristics of annual forage crops
grown in Ontario.
Figure 3-1. Soil Drainage
Requirements of Forage Species
Species Selection
Soil conditions often determine which species are suitable in a mixture.
Select the legumes first, followed by the grasses, because legumes are
often more sensitive to drainage and pH. Soil conditions such as slope
or stoniness may make it desirable to seed a legume that has long-term
persistence. See Perennial Legumes, and Figure
3-1, Soil Drainage Requirements of Forage Species, for more information
on legume tolerance to various soil conditions.
Legumes are usually grown in a mixture with one or more grasses. The major
advantages of a pure legume stand are that the protein and energy levels
of the feed will likely be greater, quality will decline more slowly with
advancing maturity, and quality will vary little from cut to cut. Unless
well managed, pure legume stands can have these disadvantages:
- weedier stands
- complete loss of feed supply if winterkill is severe
- slower drying in the windrow
- more lodging
- under some conditions, less palatable feed
Table 3-2. Characteristics of Annual Forage
Crops in Ontario
| Annual Crop |
Use |
Seeding Date |
Seeding Rate
(Kg/ha) |
N Rate
(kg/ha |
Avg. Yield
TDM/ha |
Harvest Maturity |
| Oat |
Pasture
Green chop
Hay
Silage
|
April-August
|
80-100
|
30-50
|
2.5-4.5
5.5-8.5
|
Late boot to early head
Heads emerged to soft dough |
| Barley |
Green chop silage |
April-June
|
100-125
|
40-70
|
2.5-5.5
5.5-9.5
|
Late boot to early head
heads emerged to soft dough |
Oat + peas or
Triticale + peas |
Silage |
April-June
|
Oat or triticale: 80-100
peas: 50-75
|
20-30
|
2.5-5.0
6.0-9.0
|
Late boot to early head
Heads emerged to soft dough |
| Fall rye |
Pasture |
August 15-31
|
150
|
50-80
in spring
|
1.0-1.5
|
Graze 7 weeks after seeding or early spring |
| Winter triticale |
Pasture |
August 25-
September 10
|
100-125
|
80
in spring
|
1.0-1.25
|
Graze 7 weeks after seeding or early spring |
| Soybeans |
Silage |
May 20-June 10
|
80-100
|
None
|
6.0-9.0
|
Lower leaf turns yellow |
| Annual alfalfa |
Hay
Silage
|
Late April
|
13
|
None
|
6.0-12.0
|
Late bud stage, 5-6 weeks after a cut |
| Sudan grass |
Pasture |
June 1-15
|
15-20
|
30-50
|
5.0-7.0
|
45 cm in height |
Sorgum-sudan
hybrids
|
Pasture
Green chop
Silage
|
June 1-15
|
15-20
|
50-100
|
8.0-12.0
|
Boot or early heading |
| Forage sorghums |
Silage
Pasture
Green chop
|
June 1-15
|
14-15 (single-cut, wide-row system
10-30 (multiple-cut, narrow-row system)
|
100
|
7.0-9.0
|
Boot or early heading |
| Millet |
Silage
Pasture
Green chop
Hay
|
June 1-15
|
14-20
|
35-55
|
4.0-6.0
|
Boot or early heading |
| Pearl millet |
Silage
Pasture
Green chop
Hay
|
June 1-15
|
9-20
|
|
4.0-12.0
|
Boot or early heading |
| Forage rape |
Pasture
Green chop
|
July 1-15
|
2-6
|
45-70
|
7.0-9.0
|
10-12 weeks after seeding |
| Kale |
Pasture
Green chop
|
June-July
|
2-6
|
45-70
|
9.0-12.0
|
10-15 weeks after seeding |
| Stubble turnips |
Pasture |
July 1-15
|
2-6
|
80-100
|
6.0-9.0
|
10-12 weeks after seeding |
| Annual ryegrass |
Pasture
Green chop
Hay
Silage
|
April-May
|
20-30
|
Use rates from
Table 3-6
|
8.0-12.0
|
Graze or cut 6-8 weeks after seeding |
100 kg/ha = 90 lb/acre
1 t/ha = 0.45 ton/acre
Choosing Species Mixtures
Grass Maturity at Harvest
When selecting the grass, a major consideration should be the maturity
of the grass. When using early heading species such as orchardgrass and
reed canarygrass, harvesting must be early, or quality and palatability
suffer. If harvesting will be later, a later-maturing grass such as timothy
is more suitable. Since there is a range in maturity among different varieties
within many species, consider variety maturity as well.
Desired Grass-to-Legume Ratio
Consider the ratio of grass to legume desired in the mixture. When a
lower protein level is acceptable, such as for beef cow or calf forage,
use a higher grass seeding rate for more grass. Higher grass rates tend
to reduce weed invasions, particularly by dandelions. If conditions for
legume survival are marginal, use higher grass rates for stand insurance.
More aggressive grasses, such as orchardgrass, will give more grass in
the mixture than less aggressive species, even when similar seeding rates
are used.
How Many Cuts Are Planned
Timothy does not crowd alfalfa and under a three-cut system often declines
in the stand and provides very little forage in second or third cuts.
Orchardgrass provides more midsummer grass in alfalfa mixtures than timothy.
If a strong grass component is desired in the harvested forage, particularly
in second and third cuts, then use orchardgrass, an aggressive grass that
will crowd alfalfa as the stand gets older. Bromegrass and reed canarygrass
are intermediate in aggressiveness between timothy and orchardgrass.
Early or Later Harvest
Management can affect the competitiveness of grasses with legumes. Late
harvest, when grasses are in bloom, favours the grasses relative to the
legumes. This is particularly true with reed canarygrass. Cut at the boot-stage,
reed canarygrass does not crowd legumes. If reed canarygrass is allowed
to fully head, it rapidly takes over the stand. This is particularly important
in birdsfoot trefoil and bromegrass or reed canarygrass mixtures, so harvest
promptly at the grasses' boot-stage. If this is not possible or practical,
then timothy is a more suitable grass.
Pure Grass Stand
Grasses are not usually grown in pure stands because they are low yielding
without heavy applications of nitrogen see Fertility
Management. Even with adequate fertility, some grass species produce
low yields under hot, dry midsummer conditions. However, if soil conditions
such as poor drainage make mixtures with legumes impractical, pure grass
stands can be very productive with proper fertility programs and species
selection. Pure grass stands may be more productive than grass-legume
mixtures in some areas of Northern Ontario.
For stored feed, usually only one grass species is recommended. When
two or three different species are used together, cutting at the proper
stage of maturity for all grasses may be impossible. Timothy is often
included with slow-establishing grasses such as bromegrass and reed canarygrass.
Variety Selection
Forage varieties are evaluated each year in tests conducted at a number
of locations across Ontario. The results are published in the brochure,
Ontario Forage Crop Variety Performance, available at OMAFRA Resource
Centres or on the Ontario Forage Crops Committee website at www.uoguelph.ca/plant/performance_recommendations/ofcc/ofcc.htm.
This brochure provides information on the yield performance of recommended
varieties relative to reference varieties. Information is also provided
on other factors, including persistence, disease and insect resistance,
maturity and regrowth rate.
Table 3-3, Recommended Forage Mixtures for Stored
Feed and Pasture, summarizes the characteristics of the perennial
forage species and mixtures grown in Ontario.
All forage seed sold under a variety name must be labelled "certified
seed" and have a blue tag verifying it, which ensures that it is
the named variety. Certified seed must meet specific requirements for
germination and weed seed content.
Forage seed may also be sold as common seed or as a brand. Common seed
and brands may be blends of different seed lots. They must also meet requirements
for germination and weed seed content, although the standards are less
rigorous than for certified seed. No assurance of characteristics such
as disease resistance or hardiness is possible for common seed. Therefore,
the performance of stands established using common seed or brands is unpredictable
and will often vary from year to year. The use of certified seed, rather
than brands or common seed, is strongly recommended. Only by planting
certified varieties is it possible to know in advance whether the seed
you plant will provide yield, persistence, disease resistance and maturity.
Table 3-3. Recommended Forage Mixtures
for Stored Feed and Pasture
| Components |
Seeding Rate1
Kg/ha |
Recommended for
|
Specific Recommendations |
| Stored Feed |
Managed Pasture |
Intensively Pastured |
| 1. Alfalfa |
13
|
x
|
|
|
Only on well-drained fields. Easier to cure as silage than as hay.
Harvest at bud stage for high nutrient-quality feed.
|
| 2. Alfalfa Timothy |
13
1
|
x
|
|
|
Increase timothy up to 4 kg/ha for higher grass content and easier
curing. Timothy gives stand insurance in areas prone to alfalfa
winterkill. For high nutrient quality feed, harvest timothy at boot
stage. On severely dry soils or in areas with over 3,100 CHUs, bromegrass
is preferable to timothy.
|
3. Alfalfa
Bromegrass
|
11
9
|
x
|
|
|
Will give somewhat better midsummer production than timothy mixture.
Retains quality with increasing maturity better than orchardgrass
or timothy mixtures. Bromegrass can thicken stand over time because
of its rhizomes.
|
4. Alfalfa
Orchardgrass |
11
2
|
x
|
|
x
|
Select late orchardgrass and early alfalfa varieties. Graze or
cut early to maintain quality and palatability. Percentage grass
will be higher in all cuts than with timothy or bromegrass mixtures.
|
5. Alfalfa
Orchardgrass
White clover
|
9
2
2
|
x
|
|
x
|
Same as 4. High fertility and good grazing management needed for
top production. Alfalfa included as insurance against severe dry
conditions but requires longer regrowth intervals to persist.
|
6. Alfalfa
Timothy
Bromegrass
White clover
|
9
4
9
2
|
x
|
|
x
|
Suitable for hay/pasture
combinations. |
7. Birdsfoot trefoil
Timothy
|
9
2
|
x
|
x
|
|
Use later-maturing timothy
varieties. |
8. Birdsfoot trefoil
Bromegrass
|
9
4
|
x
|
x
|
|
For long-term stands and early production. Graze early to reduce
competition from bromegrass. Good brome growth in fall.
|
9. Birdsfoot trefoil
Orchardgrass
|
8
4
|
|
|
x
|
Good early and mid-season production. Graze down orchardgrass to
reduce competition with birdsfoot trefoil. Later-maturing orchardgrass
varieties are preferred.
|
10. Birdsfoot trefoil
Tall fescue2
|
8
10
|
x
|
x
|
x
|
Good production throughout the season. Good tall fescue growth
and quality in the fall.
|
11. Birdsfoot trefoil
Creeping red fescue
|
8
6
|
|
x
|
|
Good summer and fall production.
Excellent quality in fall. |
| 12. Red clover |
11
|
x
|
|
|
Short-term haylage production
or plowdown crop. |
13. Red clover
Timothy
|
7
6
|
x
|
|
|
Short-term haylage production. When clover disappears, plow or
fertilize with nitrogen to maintain production.
|
14. White clover
Orchardgrass
|
2
9
|
|
|
x
|
For pasture use where white clover is adapted. High fertility,
adequate moisture and good grazing management required for top production.
In dry areas, add alfalfa (see 5 above).
|
1 kg/ha=0.9 lb/acre
1 For early seeding on a fine, firm seedbed, these rates may
be reduced by 25% except where coated seed is being used.
2 Use endophyte-free seed.
