Forages: Species
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| Cereals | Dry
Edible Beans |
| Spring and Winter Canola
| Other Crops | Soil
Management |
| Soil Fertility and Nutrient
Use | Field Scouting
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| On-Farm Stored Grain
Management | Weed
Control |
| Insects and Pests of
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of Field Crops | Appendices
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811: Agronomy Guide > Forages
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811: Agronomy Guide for Field Crops
Perennial Legumes
Most legumes grown for forages have taproots and broad, compound
leaves (composed of a number of leaflets) that are arranged alternately
on the stem. New shoots originate from the crown of the plant, and
the growing point of each shoot is located at the top of the shoot.
As a family, legumes produce higher quantities of protein than grasses.
If properly inoculated, legumes have the capacity to use atmospheric
nitrogen, eliminating the need to apply nitrogen from commercial
sources. Legumes also supply a considerable amount of nitrogen to
the grass portion of the mixture.
Alfalfa
Alfalfa is the highest-yielding perennial forage crop grown in
Ontario and the most frequently grown forage legume. It produces
more protein per unit area than other forage legumes and can be
grown alone or in combination with various grass species. For high
yields and persistence, alfalfa requires well-drained soil, a pH
above 6.1, adequate fertility and proper harvest management. Well-managed
alfalfa normally persists for 3 or more years. The protein and energy
levels of alfalfa-based forage are determined by stage of growth
at the time of cutting. Alfalfa has a 6-week critical fall harvest
period that should be observed to avoid winterkill.
Birdsfoot Trefoil
Birdsfoot trefoil is a non-bloating legume best suited for permanent
pasture situations. It will reseed itself, making it an excellent
choice for steep or stony land not suited to cultivation. Although
individual plants live for only a few years, stands of birdsfoot
trefoil have remained productive for 10 or more years when allowed
to go to seed. It is also well adapted to soils with marginal drainage.
Birdsfoot trefoil has a lower yield potential and is more difficult
to dry than alfalfa, so it is recommended for hay production only
in areas where alfalfa will not grow well. Since birdsfoot trefoil
seedlings are slow to establish, at least a year is required to
get a satisfactory stand. Birdsfoot trefoil, similar to alfalfa,
has a critical fall harvest period, beginning about 10 days earlier
than alfalfa.
Red Clover
Red clover is a short-lived perennial. Yields are good the year
after establishment but are often quite low the following year,
especially in Southern Ontario. It can be grown in fields that are
too wet or acidic for alfalfa. When seeded in mixtures, red clover
can suppress the establishment of other legumes. As a feed crop,
red clover is most often stored as silage since it is difficult
to dry, and often results in "dusty" or "mouldy"
hay.
There are two general types of red clover grown in Ontario: double-cut
or "medium" red clover and single-cut or "mammoth"
red clover. Double-cut will flower in the seeding year, with vigorous
regrowth after cutting. Single-cut is slower growing and matures
about 2 weeks later than double-cut. Single-cut does not flower
in the seeding year or after the first cut in succeeding years.
Use of red clover as a plowdown has become an important practice
on many farms. See Chapter
8, Soil Management, for information on the use of red clover
as a cover crop.
White Clover
White clover is used mainly in pastures. It is a short-lived perennial
that can reseed itself. There are three general types of white clover:
ladino, white dutch and small wild white. All three are similar
in appearance but differ in size, with wild white being the smallest
and ladino the largest. All have stolons, which are stems that creep
on the ground, with branches that are erect or upward slanting.
Roots are shallow and fibrous and develop from nodes of the creeping
stolons. White clover has low tolerance to drought but is relatively
tolerant to frequent grazing and has good palatability. White clover
can be frost seeded or no-tilled into existing grass pastures to
improve forage quality and yield.
Sweet Clover
Sweet clover is a slow-growing biennial often used to alleviate
compaction. Sweet clover does not flower in the year of establishment.
In the spring of the second year, it grows quickly to become a tall,
coarse-stemmed plant. The presence of coumarin in sweet clover makes
it less palatable to livestock.
There are two types of sweet clover: white-flowered and yellow-flowered.
White sweet clover is deeper rooted, taller and coarser, which makes
it more suitable for plowdown than for forage. The yellow-flowered
is more palatable to livestock and more attractive to bees. Mouldy
sweet clover hay may contain dicoumarol, which can prevent normal
blood clotting and result in the death of livestock from bleeding.
Alsike Clover
Alsike clover is a perennial although it is often treated as a
biennial. It can grow on soils that are acidic and poorly drained.
Alsike produces only one cut of hay per year and is not normally
a preferred forage legume. Alsike clover can cause photosensitivity
and liver damage in horses, so it should not be included in horse
hay or pasture mixtures.
Kura Clover
Kura clover is a pasture legume relatively new to Ontario. Kura
clover has poor seedling vigour and is difficult to establish. However,
once established, kura clover is very persistent, winter-hardy and
can tolerate less-than-ideal drainage, fertility, pH and grazing
management. It spreads by underground stems called rhizomes, has
an extensive root system and thickens with time. Proper seedbed
preparation and seeding methods are important. Kura clover must
be inoculated with the correct strain of Rhizobium bacteria.
Perennial Grasses
Grasses have many long, slender leaves that are borne on a stem.
They have very fibrous roots that help bind the soil together, thereby
reducing erosion. Some grasses have rhizomes or underground stems
that produce new shoots at each node. Grasses with rhizomes are
capable of thickening up a stand. Grasses without rhizomes are known
as bunch grasses.
Grass species differ in their competitiveness with legumes. This
will influence the grass-to-legume ratio of an established stand.
Grasses such as orchardgrass and the ryegrasses tend to be more
competitive with alfalfa than timothy or bromegrass. Grasses are
lower in protein than legumes when cut at a similar stage of development.
Timothy
Timothy is the most widely sown forage grass in Ontario and is
commonly grown in mixtures with alfalfa or birdsfoot trefoil. It
is a bunchgrass with limited tillering ability, which makes it non-aggressive
when sown with other species. It is easy to establish in early spring
or late summer and is adapted to heavier soils and variable drainage.
Timothy is palatable and high yielding in first cut. Although some
varieties have been developed for improved regrowth, regrowth after
first-cut and mid-season production is not as high as that from
either bromegrass or orchardgrass.
Smooth Bromegrass
Smooth bromegrass is an earlier, more aggressive grass than timothy.
Better drought tolerance results in more regrowth in second cut.
It spreads by rhizomes, and the stand can thicken over time. Smooth
bromegrass is palatable and tends to retain its nutritional value
with increasing maturity better than most grasses. Its major drawback
tends to be its large fluffy seed, which makes it difficult to seed
through the small seed box of drills. It does not establish well
if it is either surface seeded or seeded deeper than 5 cm (2 in.).
Meadow Bromegrass
Meadow bromegrass is useful as a pasture species because of its
early spring growth and faster recovery rate after grazing. It is
best used in rotational grazing.
Orchardgrass
Orchardgrass develops earlier and is much more aggressive than
timothy or bromegrass. It is palatable when young but loses palatability
and digestibility more quickly than other grasses. Plant breeders
have developed newer varieties that are later maturing, do not decline
in palatability and digestibility as early and match more closely
the maturity of other species in a mixture. Orchardgrass will grow
much more vigorously in the warm, dry conditions of midsummer than
timothy or bromegrass, resulting in a greater proportion of grass
in the second and third cutting of alfalfa-grass mixtures. Orchardgrass
is not as winter-hardy as either timothy or bromegrass and will
not persist in wet soils. Its aggressive seedlings make orchardgrass
easy to establish. It is recommended for intensively managed pastures
or as very early-cut haylage.
Reed Canarygrass
Reed canarygrass is best known for its ability to tolerate poorly
drained soils. It can, however, provide high yields on well-drained
soils and will produce higher yields than other grass species during
dry conditions. Reed canarygrass spreads by rhizomes. It develops
coarse stems and leaves, and quickly loses palatability and digestibility
after heading. Regrowth is vegetative and does not form a seed head,
so second- and third-cuts can be high quality. Reed canarygrass
is slow to establish and is not competitive in the year of seeding.
In the past, livestock have performed poorly on reed canarygrass
because of certain alkaloids it contained. Current recommended reed
canarygrass varieties are free of tryptomine and carboline alkaloids,
which cause poor performance. Some varieties are lower in the gramine
alkaloids that reduce palatability, intake and animal performance.
Tall Fescue
Tall fescue is a coarse, leafy grass that is useful in long-term
pastures and erosion control. It is adapted to most soil types,
tolerates imperfect drainage and withstands animal traffic well.
Its ability to maintain good feed quality into late fall makes it
useful in "stockpile grazing" or fall-saved pasture for
deferred grazing. A seed-borne systemic fungus (an endophyte) has
been linked to poor animal performance on tall fescue pasture. Once
introduced by infected seed, the fungus cannot be controlled in
an established stand of tall fescue. All recommended varieties are
endophyte-free.
Meadow Foxtail
Meadow foxtail is a long-lived perennial grass that resembles timothy
in appearance and is suitable for intensive pasture management.
It performs well on poorly drained soils, has very early spring
growth and matures early. Midsummer production during periods of
high temperature and drought may be low. Its seed is light, fluffy
and hairy; coated seed should be used.
Creeping Red Fescue
Creeping red fescue is a dense, sod-forming grass that establishes
and spreads vigorously on most soil types, including well-fertilized
subsoils. Its solid root system and thick, fine top growth make
creeping red fescue an excellent grass for streambank or grass waterway
protection. It can also serve as a bottom grass in long-term pastures
and is noted for its extended growth period and retained nutritional
value in the fall. Its low-growing habit makes it difficult to cut
and unsuitable for hay.
Meadow Fescue
Meadow fescue is a hardy grass used in hay and pasture mixtures.
It grows best on deep, fertile soils, but will tolerate variable
drainage and low fertility. Meadow fescue yields well during the
summer and fall and maintains its feed quality later into the season
than most grass species. Meadow fescue is shorter, has finer leaves
and a shallower root system than tall fescue and is not as persistent.
Perennial Ryegrass
Perennial ryegrass is a short-lived perennial that comes in turf,
pasture and hay-adapted varieties. The pasture-adapted varieties
tend to have finer leaves, smaller and more numerous tillers, and
are later maturing than the hay varieties. Turf-type perennial ryegrasses
contain endophytes, so they should not be used for forage. Perennial
ryegrass is early and vigorous in the spring, and grows well into
the fall, but is unproductive during the hot, dry summer months.
Excessive top growth of perennial ryegrass can result in winterkill,
in alfalfa mixtures that are left to over-winter. Perennial ryegrass
is not well suited to areas with prolonged ice cover and extreme
cold without adequate snow cover.
Bluegrass
In Ontario, two common bluegrasses, Canada and Kentucky, grow on
approximately 400,000 ha (1 million acres) of permanent pastureland.
In Southern Ontario, the shallow-rooted bluegrasses produce lush,
palatable growth during the spring but are unproductive during the
dry, hot summer. When properly fertilized and managed, bluegrass
production can be markedly improved, especially under the cooler
climate of northern Ontario. In pastures, they serve as a bottom
grass that controls weed invasion, withstands close grazing and
tramping, and fills in when other species thin out.
Table 3-1 Characteristics of Perennial
Forage Species Grown in Ontario
| Species |
Suitability |
Persistence
(years) |
Stengths |
Cautions |
|
Legumes
|
| Alfalfa |
Stored Feed |
3-4 S. Ont.
1-4 N. Ont.
|
Excellent quality
Excellent yield
|
May cause bloat
Poor persistence under grazing
Low tolerance to acidic or variably drained soil
Needs fall rest period |
| Birdsfoot trefoil |
Pasture
Stored feed
|
5+
(may reseed itself)
|
High quality
No bloat hazard
Good tolerance to acidic & variably drained soil
|
Slow to establish
Slow spring growth and regrowth
Needs fall rest period
Unpalatable to horses |
| Red clover |
Pasture
Stored feed
Plowdown
|
1-3
|
Excellent first-year yield
Easy to establish
High quality
Good tolerance to acidic or variably drained soil
|
Difficult to dry for hay
May cause bloat
Stand thins rapidly
May cause temporary infertility in grazing sheep
Very competitive, especially with other legumes |
| White clover |
Pasture |
5+
|
Excellent quality and palatability
Good tolerance to close grazing
|
May cause bloat
Low drought tolerance |
| Kura clover |
Pasture |
5+
|
Persistent
High quality
|
Difficult to establish
May cause bloat |
| Alsike clover |
Pasture
Stored feed
|
1-2
(may reseed
|
Very good tolerance to wet, acidic soils
Good quality
|
Lower yield than red clover
Regrowth yields low
Stand thins rapidly
May cause bloat |
| Sweet clover |
Plowdown
Stored feed
|
2
|
Excellent soil builder
Opens up subsoil
Excellent bee pasture
|
Low palatability unless harvested early
Coumarin content in older varieties causes feeding difficulties
Only 1 harvest-year |
|
Grasses
|
| Timothy |
Stored feed |
5+
|
Easy to establish
Good tolerance to variable drainage
Seed is inexpensive
|
Poor summer production
Poor persistence of late-heading varieties under three-cut harvest
system |
| Smooth bromegrass |
Pasture
Stored feed
|
5+
|
Excellent spring/fall yield
Good regrowth
Better quality retention with maturity |
Large seed size may cause seeding challenges |
| Meadow bromegrass |
Pasture
Stored feed
|
5+
|
Early spring growth
Fast recovery after cutting or grazing
Good winter-hardiness
Good palatability
|
Large seed size may cause seeding challenges
Sensitive to flooding
Spreads less by rhizomes than smooth bromegrass |
| Orchardgrass |
Pasture
Stored feed
|
5
|
Very early pasture
Excellent regrowth
Good drought tolerance
Good tolerance to close grazing
Very responsive to nitrogen
|
Rapidly loses quality and palatability
with maturity
Very competitive with other species
Poor tolerance to variable drainage and icing |
| Reed canarygrass |
Pasture
Stored feed
|
5+
|
Excellent yield on both variably drained
and dry soils
Good regrowth
Very responsive to nitrogen
|
Slow to establish
First-cut rapidly loses quality and palatability with maturity
Poor tolerance to close grazing or frequent cutting |
| Creeping red fescue |
Pasture
Grass
Waterways
|
5+
|
Good feed quality in fall
Easy to establish
Good tolerance to close grazing and to acidic soils
Good regrowth
|
Low seasonal yield
Low palatability |
| Meadow fescue |
Pasture Stored feed |
5+
|
More suitable for managed gazing than
as stored feed
Grows in early spring and late fall
Tolerant to variably drained soil
More palatable than tall fescue
Prevents erosion in waterways
|
Coated seed required
Very competitive with other species
Low drought tolerance
Low quality with maturity
Less persistent and lower yielding than tall fescue |
| Tall fescue |
Pasture
Stored feed
Grass
Waterways
|
5+
|
High yield
Good summer growth
Good feed quality in fall for stockpile grazing
Good tolerance to acidic soil
|
Coarse leaves and low palatability
Need endophyte-free seed |
| Perennial ryegrass |
Pasture
Stored feed
|
2-3 S. Ont.
|
Excellent quality and palatability
Establishes very quickly
Good tolerance to close grazing
|
Poor drought and heat tolerance
Poor tolerance to variably drained soils
Variable persistence |
| Kentucky bluegrass |
Pasture
Grass
Waterways
|
5+
|
Good quality and palatability
Good tolerance to close grazing
|
Poor summer production
Very slow to establish
Low seasonal yield |
Annual Forages
The main annual crop used to provie forage is corn, which is harvested
as corn silage. See Selecting
Hybrids for Sillage.
There are several options for annual forage crops. They can be
part of a planned cropping program or an emergency remedy to provide
feed when perennial forage crops are winterkilled or in short supply.
Annual forages are a valuable source of hay, pasture, silage or
green feed.
Winter Cereals (Rye, Triticale, Wheat)
Fall rye, winter triticale and winter wheat can provide fall and
early-spring grazing. Adequate nitrogen fertility in the spring
will provide good stored feed yields by late May. Feed quality decreases
as the crop matures. If seeded between August 15 and 31, fall rye
can be available for grazing 7 weeks later. Fall rye will produce
a larger volume of spring forage than winter triticale or wheat.
Fertilize rye to be spring grazed with 50-80 kg/ha (45-70 lb/acre)
of nitrogen just before the rye turns green in the spring. Rye will
begin to head out after mid-May if not grazed closely.
Winter triticale seed can be difficult to source. Seed 100-125
kg/ha (90-110 lb/acre) at a similar time to fall wheat. Fertilize
early in the spring with 80 kg/ha (70 lb/acre) of nitrogen for spring
grazing or stored feed. Winter triticale provides early spring grazing
similar to fall rye.
Spring Cereals (Oat, Barley, Triticale)
Spring cereals are very adaptable for forage production as hay,
silage or pasture. Oat and barley are used extensively as companion
crops for perennial forage seedings and are usually harvested as
silage to improve the establishment of the perennial forage seeding.
Seed cereals at any time in the season. Early spring planting promotes
maximum yields and production. Nitrogen fertilizer enhances vegetative
growth, and therefore 30-50 kg/ha (27-45 lb/acre) of nitrogen are
recommended. Cutting or grazing can usually begin 6-8 weeks after
seeding. Forage quality drops quickly after heading, so harvesting
at the late-boot to early-heading stage will maximize feed value.
Yield will increase as plants mature, but feed quality drops dramatically.
Silage should be wilted to 50%-65% moisture.
Cereal silages are higher in protein than corn silage but usually
lower than good-quality alfalfa haylage. Energy values are lower
than corn silage and often comparable to alfalfa haylage.
Oat is preferred over barley for pasturing and hay due to their
higher palatability. Mixed grain and spring wheat can also be used
for forage.
For more information on spring cereal mixtures, see the OMAFRA
Factsheet, Forage Production
From Spring Cereals and Cereal-Pea Mixtures, Order No. 98-041,
or visit the website at www.ontario.ca/crops.
Cereal-Pea Mixtures
Field peas seeded in mixtures with cereals will enhance feed quality.
Pea mixtures can increase protein levels and improve forage digestibility
if the peas make up at least 50% (by weight) of the seed mixture.
Adding peas will increase seed costs. Forage pea varieties are preferred.
Avoid using a semi-leafless pea variety in order to maximize leaf
yield. Oat with peas may be used as a companion crop for seeding
alfalfa but should be harvested for silage. Cut as the oat is heading
out - the peas will be just starting to pod. This growth stage will
typically occur around the last week of June.
Mixtures of spring triticale and peas can be grown as a forage
crop. Seeding rates and crop management are similar to that for
oat and peas. Mixtures of triticale and peas usually have more peas
in the harvested forage than mixtures of oat and peas. This tends
to increase quality but makes wilting slower and increases the length
of time the crop must cure before ensiling.
Forage Soybeans
Soybeans are primarily grown in Ontario for oilseed production.
However, soybeans can provide a source of high-quality forage as
an annual crop. Whole plant soybeans with good pod formation will
have similar protein levels and digestibility to alfalfa. Soybeans
can be harvested for silage but are difficult to cure for hay.
Take plant height and branching ability into consideration when
selecting the variety. Forage soybean varieties have been developed.
A solid-seeded planting with a grain drill at a seeding rate of
80-100 kg/ha (70-90 lb/acre) will provide a productive canopy for
forage production. Check herbicide labels for registered use restrictions.
Harvest soybean forage just as the lower leaves on the plant are
beginning to yellow. In Ontario, this usually coincides with the
first week in September. Only one cut per season is harvested.
Warm-Season Annual Grasses
Members of the sorghum, sudangrass and millet families are semi-arid,
tropical, warm-season annual grasses. Warm-season annual grasses
are often considered in emergency forage situations where alfalfa
has winterkilled or when planting has been delayed. They offer advantages
over corn silage in that they can be produced with conventional
forage seeding and harvesting equipment. They can be used in Ontario
for silage (chopped or wrapped large bale), green chop or pasture.
Sorghums and sudangrass are not recommended as dry hay because they
are difficult to cure. Millet is frequently used as haylage or possibly
hay, with good drying conditions.
Do not feed sorghums and sudangrass to horses, as they can cause
cystitis, an inflammation of the bladder.
Millets
The name "millet" has been given to numerous grasses
with small edible seeds. Most millet types, including Japanese,
proso, foxtail, barnyard, Koda, finger and Teff, have short (0.3-1.2
m or 1-4 ft), slim stalks. Pearl millet is the exception, with thicker
stalks that are over twice as long (1.5-3 m or 5-10 ft). The millets
commonly used for forage in Ontario are pearl millet and Japanese
millet. With proper management, millets can produce forage with
very good quality.
Millets have a smaller stem than sorghums and slightly higher total
digestible nutrients (TDN) and protein levels. Millets may be preferred
over some sorghums for pasturing or green chop because they do not
contain prussic acid. Millets and sorghums can be easily damaged
by grazing and therefore should be strip grazed.
Pearl Millet
Pearl millet grows with a mass of very fine fibrous secondary
roots and tillers. It exhibits drought tolerance and prefers a lighter
sand or sandy loam. Pearl millet can be planted when there is no
risk of frost and when soil temperatures are 12°C or warmer.
While the last week of May or early June is typically the best time
to seed, planting can be delayed until the first of July. The recommended
seeding rate is 8—10 kg/ha (7—9 lb/acre) at a 0.5—1
cm (¼—½ in.) planting depth. Growth habits and
yields of forage pearl millets are similar to those of sorghum-sudan
hybrids.
Quality and quantity of forage produced will be determined by the
stage of maturity when harvested. For high feed quality, first-cut
is usually ready about 55-60 days after planting, when it is still
vegetative. Second-cut is ready about 30—35 days later. Leaving
at least 10 cm (4 in.) of stubble results in faster regrowth. When
grazing, about 15-20 cm (6—8 in.) of stubble should be left
for faster regrowth.
To achieve high yields and protein levels, forage pearl millet
will require more nitrogen than the older millet types, but optimum
rates have not been determined. The general nitrogen recommendation
is likely similar to sorghum-sudan hybrids, split half at planting
and half following first cut if a second cut is to be harvested.
This split application of nitrogen will optimize yield and quality.
There are limited weed control options for pearl millet. Using a
stale seedbed practice will improve establishment. For more information
on weed control, see OMAFRA
Publication 75, Guide to Weed Control.
Sorghum Family
Members of the sorghum family used for forage include forage sorghums,
sudangrass and various hybrids. There is considerable variability
in agronomic and nutritional quality traits among species, hybrids
and varieties.
Sorghum and Sorghum-Sudangrass
Forage sorghum and sorghum-sudangrass grow tall and have the potential
for high yields. Older forage sorghum varieties were adapted to
a high-yield, lower forage-quality, single-cut harvest. Grain sorghums,
also called milo, are not recommended for forage production due
to low dry-matter yields.
Newer forage sorghum hybrids have been developed to be grown as
a short season, two-cut, high-quality forage. Hybrid forage sorghums
have fine fibrous secondary roots and tillers, giving them better
drought tolerance. Forage sorghums will tolerate heavier soils better
than pearl millet. Optimum growth of these plants occurs under hot,
moist conditions.
Planting forage sorghums should occur after the risk of frost has
past and soil temperatures are above 12°C, typically the last
week of May or early June. Seeding rates range from 10-30 kg/ha
(9-27 lb/acre). Lower rates can be used under ideal planting conditions
and in wider row widths. Generally, higher seeding rates should
be used in narrow row widths and under poorer seeding conditions
Seed dealers can recommend the seeding rate for the specific variety.
Planting depth should be 0.5-1 cm (¼-½ in.). Fertilize
with phosphorus and potash according to soil test. The nitrogen
recommendation is 50-100 kg/ha (45-90 lb/acre). A split application
of nitrogen, half at seeding and half after the first cut, will
optimize yield and quality. For weed control, see OMAFRA
Publication 75, Guide to Weed Control.
The stage of maturity is the most important factor influencing
the quality and quantity of forage produced. Typically, forage sorghums
are ready for harvesting 60-65 days after planting (late July or
early August) and a second cut will be ready 30-35 days later. For
faster regrowth, leave at least 10 cm (4 in.) of stubble when cutting,
or 15-20 cm (6-8 in.) when grazing. A one-cut silage system will
greatly improve yields but at the expense of feed quality. Feed
quality drops dramatically after heading. The crop should be wilted
and ensiled at about 65% moisture content.
Forage sorghum and sorghum-sudan varieties with brown midrib (BMR)
characteristics have been developed with significantly increased
fibre digestibility (NDFd). BMR is a genetic mutation that reduces
the amount of lignin in the stalk but can also increase the potential
for lodging.
Sudangrass
Sudangrass is used for pasturing. It has pencil-size stems and
is palatable even after it heads out. Grazing should be delayed
until the crop reaches 45 cm (18 in.). Under rotational grazing,
the crop will remain productive and succulent throughout the season.
Sudangrass can tolerate slightly wetter soils than the other sorghums
but does best on medium- to well-drained soils.
Prussic Acid Poisoning
Prussic acid (hydrogen cyanide) poisoning of livestock is a possible
concern if feeding sorghums and sudan grass. Young or immature plants,
plants suffering from drought stress or plants that have been exposed
to frost can contain a higher level of prussic acid. High-nitrogen
fertilizer also increases the potential toxicity. Some newer hybrid
forage sorghums may have lower levels of prussic acid. Prussic acid
poisoning is not a concern with millets. To reduce the risk of prussic
acid poisoning:
- Do not graze pastures or green chop stands less than 45-60
cm (18-24 in.) tall.
- Do not green chop or ensile sorghum over 76 cm (30 in.) tall
for 3 days after a killing frost.
- Do not green chop plants under 45 cm (18 in.) tall for 3 weeks
after a killing frost.
- After a drought, do not graze animals on new growth following
a rain.
- Use varieties with reduced prussic acid content.
Nitrate Poisoning
Abnormally high nitrate levels in forages can lead to nitrate poisoning
and even death in livestock, and formation of silo gas if the crop
is ensiled. Of the various forages, sudan-sorghum and cereals can
accumulate the highest levels, forage grasses accumulate intermediate
levels, while legumes accumulate levels low enough to rarely be
considered a problem. Nitrate poisoning can also be a concern with
green chop corn and corn silage.
Nitrate levels are only a problem under abnormal growing conditions,
such as:
- very high soil levels of nitrogen (i.e., excessive rates of
nitrogen fertilizer or manure or combinations of these along with
legume plowdown)
- a long drought, followed by rain. In this situation, delay
harvest for 10 days after rainfall, to allow conversion of nitrates
to protein.
- any condition that kills the leaves, while roots and stems
remain active and accumulate nitrates (such as frost, hail and
sometimes drought)
Suspect feeds can be tested for nitrate levels. Ensiling will reduce
the nitrate level in the forage. Note that when high nitrate forage
is ensiled, deadly nitrogen dioxide gas can be produced see Silo
Gas
Forage Brassicas
Forage Rape, Kale and Stubble Turnips
Forage rape, kale and stubble turnips are excellent crops for providing
high-quality pasture from September to December. See Table
8-10, Characteristics of Cover Crops Grown in Ontario, or OMAFRA
Publication 19, Pasture Production, for more information.
Annual Ryegrass
Annual ryegrass is a rapidly growing bunchgrass that is adapted
to a wide range of soil conditions. It regrows continuously throughout
the season and has the potential to be highly productive, with enough
rain and nitrogen. It is a useful species for mid- to late-season
production but does poorly under high-temperature conditions. During
periods of little or no rainfall, the plants stop growing and may
die.
Two types of ryegrass (with differing growth habits) are available.
Italian Ryegrasses
The Italian ryegrasses are short-lived perennials or biennials,
but under Ontario winter conditions behave like an annual. The Italian
ryegrasses remain vegetative without a seed-head, producing a lush,
leafy growth with high forage quality. They do not usually grow
taller than 40 cm (16 in.) and are difficult to harvest as dry hay.
Westerwold Ryegrasses
The Westerwold type is a true annual and grows to 40-80 cm (16-32
in.) high, making it suitable for pastures or hay crops. The Westerwold
varieties grow taller, produce stems and are therefore easier to
harvest for hay. They should be cut before or just at the heading
stage since feed quality decreases rapidly after heading.
Seeding should occur in early spring at a rate of 20-25 kg/ha (18-22
lb/acre) using a drill or cultipacker-type seeder. The seed should
be placed 1 cm (½ in.) deep and the seedbed rolled to enhance
seed-soil contact to promote good emergence from the light, fluffy
seed.
Table 3-2, Characteristics of Annual Forage
Crops in Ontario, summarizes the characteristics of annual forage
crops grown in Ontario.
Figure 3-1. Soil
Drainage Requirements of Forage Species
Species Selection
Soil conditions often determine which species are suitable in a
mixture. Select the legumes first, followed by the grasses, because
legumes are often more sensitive to drainage and pH. Soil conditions
such as slope or stoniness may make it desirable to seed a legume
that has long-term persistence. See Perennial
Legumes, and Figure 3-1, Soil Drainage
Requirements of Forage Species, for more information on legume
tolerance to various soil conditions.
Legumes are usually grown in a mixture with one or more grasses.
The major advantages of a pure legume stand are that the protein
and energy levels of the feed will likely be greater, quality will
decline more slowly with advancing maturity, and quality will vary
little from cut to cut. Unless well managed, pure legume stands
can have these disadvantages:
- weedier stands
- complete loss of feed supply if winterkill is severe
- slower drying in the windrow
- more lodging
- under some conditions, less palatable feed
Table 3-2. Characteristics of Annual
Forage Crops in Ontario
| Annual Crop |
Use |
Seeding Date |
Seeding Rate
(Kg/ha) |
N Rate
(kg/ha |
Avg. Yield
TDM/ha |
Harvest Maturity |
| Oat |
Pasture
Green chop
Hay
Silage
|
April-August
|
80-100
|
30-50
|
2.5-4.5
5.5-8.5
|
Late boot to early head
Heads emerged to soft dough |
| Barley |
Green chop silage |
April-June
|
100-125
|
40-70
|
2.5-5.5
5.5-9.5
|
Late boot to early head
heads emerged to soft dough |
Oat + peas or
Triticale + peas |
Silage |
April-June
|
Oat or triticale: 80-100
peas: 50-75
|
20-30
|
2.5-5.0
6.0-9.0
|
Late boot to early head
Heads emerged to soft dough |
| Fall rye |
Pasture |
August 15-31
|
150
|
50-80
in spring
|
1.0-1.5
|
Graze 7 weeks after seeding or early spring |
| Winter triticale |
Pasture |
August 25-
September 10
|
100-125
|
80
in spring
|
1.0-1.25
|
Graze 7 weeks after seeding or early spring |
| Soybeans |
Silage |
May 20-June 10
|
80-100
|
None
|
6.0-9.0
|
Lower leaf turns yellow |
| Annual alfalfa |
Hay
Silage
|
Late April
|
13
|
None
|
6.0-12.0
|
Late bud stage, 5-6 weeks after a cut |
| Sudan grass |
Pasture |
June 1-15
|
15-20
|
30-50
|
5.0-7.0
|
45 cm in height |
Sorgum-sudan
hybrids
|
Pasture
Green chop
Silage
|
June 1-15
|
15-20
|
50-100
|
8.0-12.0
|
Boot or early heading |
| Forage sorghums |
Silage
Pasture
Green chop
|
June 1-15
|
14-15 (single-cut, wide-row system
10-30 (multiple-cut, narrow-row system)
|
100
|
7.0-9.0
|
Boot or early heading |
| Millet |
Silage
Pasture
Green chop
Hay
|
June 1-15
|
14-20
|
35-55
|
4.0-6.0
|
Boot or early heading |
| Pearl millet |
Silage
Pasture
Green chop
Hay
|
June 1-15
|
9-20
|
|
4.0-12.0
|
Boot or early heading |
| Forage rape |
Pasture
Green chop
|
July 1-15
|
2-6
|
45-70
|
7.0-9.0
|
10-12 weeks after seeding |
| Kale |
Pasture
Green chop
|
June-July
|
2-6
|
45-70
|
9.0-12.0
|
10-15 weeks after seeding |
| Stubble turnips |
Pasture |
July 1-15
|
2-6
|
80-100
|
6.0-9.0
|
10-12 weeks after seeding |
| Annual ryegrass |
Pasture
Green chop
Hay
Silage
|
April-May
|
20-30
|
Use rates from
Table 3-6
|
8.0-12.0
|
Graze or cut 6-8 weeks after seeding |
100 kg/ha = 90 lb/acre
1 t/ha = 0.45 ton/acre
Choosing Species Mixtures
Grass Maturity at Harvest
When selecting the grass, a major consideration should be the maturity
of the grass. When using early heading species such as orchardgrass
and reed canarygrass, harvesting must be early, or quality and palatability
suffer. If harvesting will be later, a later-maturing grass such
as timothy is more suitable. Since there is a range in maturity
among different varieties within many species, consider variety
maturity as well.
Desired Grass-to-Legume Ratio
Consider the ratio of grass to legume desired in the mixture. When
a lower protein level is acceptable, such as for beef cow or calf
forage, use a higher grass seeding rate for more grass. Higher grass
rates tend to reduce weed invasions, particularly by dandelions.
If conditions for legume survival are marginal, use higher grass
rates for stand insurance. More aggressive grasses, such as orchardgrass,
will give more grass in the mixture than less aggressive species,
even when similar seeding rates are used.
How Many Cuts Are Planned
Timothy does not crowd alfalfa and under a three-cut system often
declines in the stand and provides very little forage in second
or third cuts. Orchardgrass provides more midsummer grass in alfalfa
mixtures than timothy. If a strong grass component is desired in
the harvested forage, particularly in second and third cuts, then
use orchardgrass, an aggressive grass that will crowd alfalfa as
the stand gets older. Bromegrass and reed canarygrass are intermediate
in aggressiveness between timothy and orchardgrass.
Early or Later Harvest
Management can affect the competitiveness of grasses with legumes.
Late harvest, when grasses are in bloom, favours the grasses relative
to the legumes. This is particularly true with reed canarygrass.
Cut at the boot-stage, reed canarygrass does not crowd legumes.
If reed canarygrass is allowed to fully head, it rapidly takes over
the stand. This is particularly important in birdsfoot trefoil and
bromegrass or reed canarygrass mixtures, so harvest promptly at
the grasses' boot-stage. If this is not possible or practical, then
timothy is a more suitable grass.
Pure Grass Stand
Grasses are not usually grown in pure stands because they are low
yielding without heavy applications of nitrogen see Fertility
Management. Even with adequate fertility, some grass species
produce low yields under hot, dry midsummer conditions. However,
if soil conditions such as poor drainage make mixtures with legumes
impractical, pure grass stands can be very productive with proper
fertility programs and species selection. Pure grass stands may
be more productive than grass-legume mixtures in some areas of Northern
Ontario.
For stored feed, usually only one grass species is recommended.
When two or three different species are used together, cutting at
the proper stage of maturity for all grasses may be impossible.
Timothy is often included with slow-establishing grasses such as
bromegrass and reed canarygrass.
Variety Selection
Forage varieties are evaluated each year in tests conducted at
a number of locations across Ontario. The results are published
in the brochure, Ontario Forage Crop Variety Performance, available
at OMAFRA Resource Centres or on the Ontario Forage Crops Committee
website at www.uoguelph.ca/plant/performance_recommendations/ofcc/ofcc.htm.
This brochure provides information on the yield performance of recommended
varieties relative to reference varieties. Information is also provided
on other factors, including persistence, disease and insect resistance,
maturity and regrowth rate.
Table 3-3, Recommended Forage Mixtures for
Stored Feed and Pasture, summarizes the characteristics of the
perennial forage species and mixtures grown in Ontario.
All forage seed sold under a variety name must be labelled "certified
seed" and have a blue tag verifying it, which ensures that
it is the named variety. Certified seed must meet specific requirements
for germination and weed seed content.
Forage seed may also be sold as common seed or as a brand. Common
seed and brands may be blends of different seed lots. They must
also meet requirements for germination and weed seed content, although
the standards are less rigorous than for certified seed. No assurance
of characteristics such as disease resistance or hardiness is possible
for common seed. Therefore, the performance of stands established
using common seed or brands is unpredictable and will often vary
from year to year. The use of certified seed, rather than brands
or common seed, is strongly recommended. Only by planting certified
varieties is it possible to know in advance whether the seed you
plant will provide yield, persistence, disease resistance and maturity.
Table 3-3. Recommended Forage Mixtures
for Stored Feed and Pasture
| Components |
Seeding Rate1
Kg/ha |
Recommended for
|
Specific Recommendations |
| Stored Feed |
Managed Pasture |
Intensively Pastured |
| 1. Alfalfa |
13
|
x
|
|
|
Only on well-drained fields. Easier to cure as silage than
as hay. Harvest at bud stage for high nutrient-quality feed.
|
| 2. Alfalfa Timothy |
13
1
|
x
|
|
|
Increase timothy up to 4 kg/ha for higher grass content and
easier curing. Timothy gives stand insurance in areas prone
to alfalfa winterkill. For high nutrient quality feed, harvest
timothy at boot stage. On severely dry soils or in areas with
over 3,100 CHUs, bromegrass is preferable to timothy.
|
3. Alfalfa
Bromegrass
|
11
9
|
x
|
|
|
Will give somewhat better midsummer production than timothy
mixture. Retains quality with increasing maturity better than
orchardgrass or timothy mixtures. Bromegrass can thicken stand
over time because of its rhizomes.
|
4. Alfalfa
Orchardgrass |
11
2
|
x
|
|
x
|
Select late orchardgrass and early alfalfa varieties. Graze
or cut early to maintain quality and palatability. Percentage
grass will be higher in all cuts than with timothy or bromegrass
mixtures.
|
5. Alfalfa
Orchardgrass
White clover
|
9
2
2
|
x
|
|
x
|
Same as 4. High fertility and good grazing management needed
for top production. Alfalfa included as insurance against
severe dry conditions but requires longer regrowth intervals
to persist.
|
6. Alfalfa
Timothy
Bromegrass
White clover
|
9
4
9
2
|
x
|
|
x
|
Suitable for hay/pasture
combinations. |
7. Birdsfoot trefoil
Timothy
|
9
2
|
x
|
x
|
|
Use later-maturing
timothy varieties. |
8. Birdsfoot trefoil
Bromegrass
|
9
4
|
x
|
x
|
|
For long-term stands and early production. Graze early to
reduce competition from bromegrass. Good brome growth in fall.
|
9. Birdsfoot trefoil
Orchardgrass
|
8
4
|
|
|
x
|
Good early and mid-season production. Graze down orchardgrass
to reduce competition with birdsfoot trefoil. Later-maturing
orchardgrass varieties are preferred.
|
10. Birdsfoot trefoil
Tall fescue2
|
8
10
|
x
|
x
|
x
|
Good production throughout the season. Good tall fescue growth
and quality in the fall.
|
11. Birdsfoot trefoil
Creeping red fescue
|
8
6
|
|
x
|
|
Good summer and fall
production. Excellent quality in fall. |
| 12. Red clover |
11
|
x
|
|
|
Short-term haylage
production or plowdown crop. |
13. Red clover
Timothy
|
7
6
|
x
|
|
|
Short-term haylage production. When clover disappears, plow
or fertilize with nitrogen to maintain production.
|
14. White clover
Orchardgrass
|
2
9
|
|
|
x
|
For pasture use where white clover is adapted. High fertility,
adequate moisture and good grazing management required for
top production. In dry areas, add alfalfa (see 5 above).
|
1 kg/ha=0.9 lb/acre
1 For early seeding on a fine, firm seedbed, these rates
may be reduced by 25% except where coated seed is being used.
2 Use endophyte-free seed.
